‘*Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentiz testes, divitie felicitatis

humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper zstimata; 4 veré eruditis

et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—

LINNZUs.

‘* Quelque soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir

qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent

toutes ses opérations.”—BRUuCKNER, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

a 50 Goold ¢ ooo on JH Oe

Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XIV.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

NUMBER LXXIX.

I. On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S,

Rtas sense Se eae Ie ee eee: dae aisnans Sueeoe eae reece eeaeaan 1

II. Additions and Corrections to the Arrangement of the Families

of Bivalve Shells. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S. &e. ... 21

III. Supplement to a Catalogue of British Spiders, including re-

marks on their Structure, Functions, iconomy and Systematic Ar-

rangement. By JOHN BLACKWALL, F.LAS..........0ceeeeeee Sescubvessss 28

IV. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the Strue-

ture of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By THomas

WiriiiAMs, M.Da-honil. OWith two! Blates.) i.0. 05.0 scscdientencees 34

V. Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an eight

years’ residence in the Island. By EpGAr LEopo.p Layarp, F.Z.S.,

eee Dee eee hers. eee Nab onadcerts as sett aces treasesaceosisastvseetenapes 57

VI. On Manufactured Sea Water for the Aquarium. By P. H.

RCMB FSSe ANd Sa cm ase ince sane ct veered cosa aa Noe sedis ode geenccsetvcapeeseoeceeee 65

Proceedings of the Royal Society ; Zoological Society ; Royal Insti-

REUHIOTION TER Saree eis ccias oo cate ae Onions ce ade ce mean ae ee eon we 67—74

On the Formation of the Stomata in the Epidermis of the Leaves of

the Spiderwort (Tradescantia virginica), and on the Evolution of

the Cells in their neighbourhood, by Dr. Garreau; Description

of a new Genus of Bivalve Mollusca, by H. and A. Adams; On

the Dimorphism of the Uredinee, by M. Tulasne; Meteorolo-

ienk CepservahiOne sid) LADS 2255565 hedaes spaasavde dadem divandndac 75—80

NUMBER LXXX.

VII. Researches on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. By

ETOP ESTES NEL, PVOMEON wos sensnataaevissadvssesnncopanase sp one 81

VIII. On the true position of the Canaliferous Structure in the

1V CONTENTS.

Page

Shell of Fossil Alveolina (D’Orbigny). By H. J. Carrer, Esq.,

Assistant Surgeon, Bombay Establishment. (With a Plate.) ...... eat

IX. Notice of some new species of British Nudibranchiata. By

JOSHUA ALDER and ALBANY TLANCOCK \sscorecsesacecsncnceesassaricnewss 102 |

X. Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an eight

years’ residence in the Island. By EpGar Leopotp Layarp, F.Z.S.,

CCAIR DEST Ten pee sreene ace eonoct cr caoecee wanders 7 on qronodubosnaecr sancnncee 105

XI. On some new Cretaceous Crustacea. By FrepERiIcK M‘Coy,

F.G.S., Hon. F.C.P.S., Professor of Natural Science in the University

of Melbourne, late Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the Queen’s

University of Ireland. (With a Plate.) ...... SEC ERA eee Bane aa snoebseaeen 116

XII. On the Aclis unica, Auct. By Witii1amM CxiarK, Esq....... 122

XIII. On some Arctic species of Calanide. By Joun Lussock,

Esq., F.Z.S. (With a Plate.) ssscsecsecesecesseeereeccsceeesseesenseeesenees 125

XIV. Description of a new Genus and Species of British Curcu-

lionide. By T. VeRNoN WOLLASTON, M.A., FLAS. «0c. cece eee eee eee 129

XV. On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq., F.R.S.,

[tel Ce Soi ond cesocancponga sane schocenss Prices eet eeaeeceennaeeeeeeneeeseneeneeeenes 131

XVI. Note on the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus. By J. 5.

BuRDON SANDERSON, M.D. (With a Plate.) ....ccccccsssesseccscsecess 141

Proceedings of the Zoological Society; Botanical Society of Edin-

burgh sme e Pee Oona esse eeesee see eTAeesssHune COC Hee PHO Eee FOES E OSE eerese eee 145—155

On the Embryogeny and Propagation of Intestinal Worms, by

MM. Ercolani and Vella; On two new species of South American

Birds, by Philip Lutley Sclater; Description of a new species of

Hyrax from Fernando Po, by Louis Fraser, H.M. Consul at

Whidah ; Meteorological Observations and Table. ......... 156—160

NUMBER LXXXI.

XVII. On the Occurrence of “* Cimchonaceous Glands” in Galiacee,

and on the Relations of that Order to Cinchonacee. By GrorcGE

Lawson, F.R.P.S., F.B.S.E., Demonstrator of Botany and Vegetable

Histology to the University of Edinburgh. (With a Plate.) ......... 16]

XVIII. Miscellaneous Notes on the Fauna of Dacca, including

Remarks made on the line of march from Barrackpore to that Station.

By Capt. Roperr C. Tyruer, of the 38th Regiment Bengal Native

Light Infantiry.........+ssssseeseneseeeeceeeees Seah Gotu amet coaneseamaene ce temas 168

XIX. A Reply to some Statements of Dr. Wilhams on the contro-

versy respecting the Branchial Currents in the Lamellibranchiata. By

JOSHUA ALDER, TESq. 5. ceurcesbslenpecsensssinwannsaensthinvanees asa aesenut ses 177

CONTENTS. Vv

Page

XX. On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq., F.R.S.,

BU CAE wo de a aaa P ys aS inna aebdh seistoplns eds suniscc dao oespareedenttas tak 182

XXI. Rejoinder to Professor Milne-Edwards and Mr. Bowerbank.

VOR TOLGTAONy SIG W LEK. uel woking sesedcvncdnaucsycassacuerss.csditewcceesteces 195

XXII. Notice of a new species of Caulerpa. By R. K. Grevitue,

Pies ee: (With. a Plate.) .2cc.cscrsececoncsr-c0ee Some enise de aniins Ca cieateateee 197

New Books :—Geodephaga Britannica, by J. F. Dawson.—The Medals

of Creation, &e., by (the late) G. A. Mantell, F.R.S.—Genera

Plantarum Flore Germanice iconibus et descriptionibus illus-

trata, Auctore R. Caspary.—The Microscope and its application

to Clinical Medicine, by Lionel Beale, M.B.—The Microscope ;

its History, Construction, and Applications, by Jabez Hoge,

UGE OSs Nee decaseessesanataens sens aobelan ee Beene nee asttare seas 198—205

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society ; Botanical

Society of Edinburgh ; Limnzean Society ...........sseeeeeeee 205—234

On the Development of Cenurus cerebralis, by Prof. Van Beneden;

On the Capture of Thecacera pennigera, by William Thompson ;

Note on Athyrium rheticum, by 8. O. Gray ; On the occurrence

of Larvee of Sarcophaga in the Human Eye and Nose, by Dr. E.

Grube ; Meteorological Observations and Table ............ 234—240

NUMBER LXXXIlI.

XXIII. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the

Structure of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By

Tuomas Wi.uiAMs, M.D. Lond. (With three Plates.)

XXIV. On the Remains of a gigantic Bird (Lithornis Emuinus)

from the London Clay of Sheppey. By J.S. Bowersank, F.R:S. &e. 263

XXV. Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an

eight years’ residence in the Island. By EpGar Leopoip Layarp,

ei MES s BoC geancatoatesqsedsbesesesss oe sdore ia setae aadanaae ees 264

XXVI. On the Fertilization of Ferns.. By W. Hormetsrer ...... 272

XXVII. Upon a new species of “ Alpheus” discovered upon the

coast of “ Herm” (Channel Islands). By W. V. Guts, Esq., F.G.S. 275

XXVIII. Descriptions of three new species of British Actinie. By

Pera Deere GC OSB iw ACN Ore ire camencaeiet asics se siassoaoc@endcasesdectscavecocecs,. 280

New Books :—The Ferns of Great Britain. Illustrated by John E.

Sowerby. The Descriptions, Synonyms, &e. by C. Johnson

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society ; Linnzan

Society ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh ............... A 285—315

vl CONTENTS.

Page

On the Cenurus cerebralis of the Sheep, by Dr. Kiichenmeister; On

the Occurrence of Zinc in the Vegetable Organism, by A. Braun ;

Notes on the Bovine Animals of the Malay Peninsula, by George

Windsor Earl ; Meteorological Observations and Table ... 315—320

NUMBER LXXXIIl.

XXIX. Contributions to the Natural History of the Infusoria. By

A. SCHNEIDER. (With a Plate.) ......... seated eaeebwewatett tes wacd peas 321

XXX. Zoosperms in Spongilla. By H. J. Carrer, Esq. (With

B PIACCS iat. fied dade sseasccssouencaen Seneca teeta emanstineiemsee ecaee care acer 334

XXXI. On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq., F.R.S.,

MS tcl aice es canes saaisninls cag cntaana cas sanet ooigetoonsermecmedsas ste sa sneseemene ts 336

XXXIT. On the Occurrence of the Bottle-headed Whale, Hy-

peroodon bidens, Flem., and remarks thereon. By WILLIAM

THOMPSON, 1 BSG. » -ssedgevthis Seuswasddsaine « cc2dtvivined sled teen ddvck «Woe eteleaee 347

XXXII. On the Primitive Diversity and Number of Animals in

Geological Times. By L. AGASSIZ .......cecececesseees sMacnsacasutastens 350

XXXIV. Memoranda of Observations made in small Aquaria, in

which the Balance between the Animal and Vegetable Organisms was

permanently maintamed. By Roperr WarinGToN, Esq. ............ 366

XXXV. Ona Mode of giving permanent Flexibility to brittle spe-

cimens in Botany and Zoology. By Prof. J. W. Barney, U.S. ...... 373

New Books :—A Manual of Natural History for the use of Travellers,

by Arthur Adams, W. B. Baikie, and Charles Barron ............ 375

Proceedings of the Zoological Society :—Mr. T. Huxley on the Ana-

tomy and Development of Echinococcus veterinorum. (With a

DIAG) sccansay sagen ss cnsu ue daes See as cnehie sana natneeriter gece badam deen tone 379

On the natural and artificial Fecundation of A’gilops by Triticum, by

M. Godron ; The Ounces, by Dr. J. E. Gray; The African Seal,

Heliophoca atlantica, by Dr. J. E. Gray ; Notes on the Develop-

ment of the Actinie, by M. Haime; Rare Irish Mollusca, by

Samuel Wright; Typical Collections of Mollusca in the British

Museum; Ona new species of Suthora from China, by G. R. Gray,

F.L.S., F.Z.S. &c. ; On some Fishes allied to Gymnotus, by Alfred

R. Wallace ; Meteorological Observations and Table ...... 394—400

NUMBER LXXXIV.

XXXVI. Remarks on Associations of Colour and the Relations of

Colour and Form in Plants. By G. Dick1n, M.D., Professor of Na-

turalslistory, Queen’s College; Belfast, \. +. :. .meaccecss caseenseeste s ascent 401

CONTENTS. vil

Page

XXXVIT. On Linaria sepium of Allman. By C. C. BaBineton,

MACS BRiShGce29 ois .<2 GeeeeeweaensWdeen eter atets reaaseseecunsnavavs sae as 408

XXXVIII. Characters of four Indian species of Cyclophorus, Mont-

fort, followed by Notes on the Geographical Distribution of the genera

of the Cyclostomacea in Hindostan. By W. H. Benson, Esq. ...... 411

XXXIX. Description of a new genus of Bivalye Mollusea. By

Per ACe Niep AUD ANUS ae hte wants os soniaeidd ss sacs salves ses wopeenancueAecuieadeoacasees 418

XL. On Artificial Sea Water. By Roperr WaRINGTON, Esq.... 419

XLI. On the Genus Mermis. By Dr.G. Mrtssner. Analysis by

AAV Pe ES CRI NENT 2 oy cncisiocere sane cota weocnsaen eee ues econesscackoouiaseahost 42]

XLII. On the Fecundation of the Conifere. By Dr. W. Hor-

MIGESTER: ~“scscecevcses ACHBOAGE COB CCHEDOCOOHODSERTICO CRE SE Rncn tee aeaiscacesnees 429

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society ; Botanical

Society of Edinburgh ; Linnzan Society ..........-..:se0000 441—465

Alpheus affinis; On a new species of Rock Kangaroo, by Dr. J. E.

Gray ; Meteorological Observations and Table .............+. 465—467

PLATES IN VOL. XIV.

pea | Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals.

III. Structure of the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus.—Canaliferous

Structure im the Shell of Alveolina.

TV. New fossil Crustacea.

V. New species of Calanide.

VI.

VII. } Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals.

VIII.

IX. Cinchonaceous Glands of the Galiacez.

X. Caulerpa superba.

XI. Zoosperms in Spongilla.—Development of Infusoria.—Develop-

ment of Echimococcus veterimorum.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

SORA Meher per litora spargite muscum,

Naiades, et circdm vitreos considite fontes :

Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :

Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.

At vos, 0 Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ;

ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas

Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”’

N. Parthenii Giannettaséi Eci.1,

No.'79: JULY 1854.

1.—On the Genus Lycitum. By Joun Miers, Esq.,

-F.RS., F.L.S. &e.

THIS genus is truly cosmopolitan, being found abundantly in

Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, in the former more rarely in

regard to the number of species, in the latter most abundantly.

The species are mostly low straggling shrubs, or bushes of

crooked and stunted growth, generally with thorny branches,

often barren and knotty, the younger branches bearing usually

fasciculated leaves: these branchlets commonly dwindle into

short acute spines, which are both leafy and floriferous. They

grow ordinarily in maritime situations, or in inland sandy deserts,

where the soil is more or less impregnated with saline matter.

Contrary to general rule, the leaves and the habit of the plants

afford uncertain specific characters; for the leaves are often so

polymorphous, that specimens of the same plant are sometimes

mistaken for different species, and on the other hand, many

species so closely resemble each other, in habit and form of their

leaves, that they are frequently confounded together*. For

* This was long ago (1813) shown by Poiret, who says, Dict. Méthod.

Suppl. iii. 427 :—“* La plupart des espéces qui composent les Lycium sont

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv.

2 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Liycium.

these reasons | have been led to search for more certain specific

characters in the structure of the flowers, which appear to afford

constant features that may be relied upon, and this has induced

me to remodel the genus, and revise all the species within my

reach. As Lycium has recently been so fully elaborated by M.

Dunal, and the numerous species described by him have been

accompanied with such copious and minute details, this may ap-

pear to be quite unnecessary; but my inquiries have convinced me,

that for the purposes of specific distinction, little value is to be

placed upon many of these ample definitions, and that it is re-

quisite to examine the same materials again with more caution.

M. Dunal enumerates only three South American species ; I have

here described thirty : during my travels thirty years ago, I met,

on the confines of the Andes, with many plants hitherto un-

noticed ; and I find in Sir W. Hooker’s rich herbarium, other

new species, besides several from the northern portion of that

hemisphere, as well as many of Asiatic and African origin, which

I now propose to describe.

Of the 70 species I have enumerated (besides those that are

dubious), 33 belong to the old, and 37 to the new world. Of

these, 3 are found in Europe, 2 in Madeira and Barbary, 3 in

Tartary, 6 in Arabia, Persia, Guzzerat and Scinde, and 19 in

South Africa; and in the other hemisphere, 1 in the United

States, 6 in California and Mexico, 1 in the West Indies, 2 in

Peru, 6 in Chile, 3 in Southern Patagonia, 13 in the extensive

shingle plains that skirt the eastern flanks of the Cordillera, or

that penetrate its gorges, 3 in the vast mud deposit that forms

the Pampas, and 2 in tropical Brazil. From this distribution

it will be seen, that nearly one-fourth of the known species are

found in South Africa, and another fourth on the two sides of

tellement rapprochées, qu’elles sont difficiles 4 bien caractériser, d’autant

plus que la plupart cultivées, varient dans la forme et la grandeur de leur

feuilles, dans le nombre des divisions du calice et de la corolle, d’ou il est

résulté de la confusion dans la synonymie, et beaucoup de doutes pour

quelques espéces, établies par des auteurs modernes.”” Indeed the habit of

Lycium is peculiar, where we observe a constant tendency to the abortion

of its branchlets, especially when grown in arid and saline places; we then

commonly find in each axil of the stems, a protuberant knotty excrescence,

sometimes quite bare, which is, in fact, a leaf-bud or gemma, checked in

its earliest development and lignified; generally, a few elementary leaf-

scales succeed in escaping from the gemma, forming a fascicle of starved

leaves, and often the node is at the same time expanded into a longer or

shorter spine, which again bears several similar suppressed nodes. In the

same plant, however, when exposed to circumstances that favour a more

rapid growth, we observe the nodes expanded into regular lengthened

branches and branchlets, with much larger alternate leaves, in each axil.

Hence it is, that the appearance of each species may become, and usually

is so varied, that we are liable to constant error in determining its indivi-

duality from its habit alone, and the form or size of its leaves or spines.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 3

the Andes within the latitudes of Chile; the latter district, how-

ever, has been very little explored, and there is every reason to

believe it will be found by far the most prolific in number of spe-

cies of any quarter of the globe.

According to M. Dunal’s distribution of the genus, I find it

absolutely impossible to determine the sections to which this

large number of new species should be referred. He divides

Lycium into four sections, Schistocalyx, Hulycium, Amblymeris,

and Lyciobatos: Schistocalyx, distinguished by its calyx cleft to

the base, comprises only two species, which I have shown do not

belong to Lycium* ; Amblymeris, another new section, is pre-

* Huj. op. xi. 97. The first plant (my Salpichroma ciliatum, Ml. So.

Amer. Pl. i. p. 9 and 133; Lycium ciliatum, Schl.) is distmguished by its

alternate pointed leaves, nearly as broad as long, almost cordate at base

upon a short petiole, with ciliated margins, and covered with short jointed

hairs, solitary axillary flowers with the peduncle afterwards reflected, its

calyx split to the base into distinct linear segments covered with glandular

hairs, especially on its margins, its corolla externally pubescent, with a short

tube, and a border of 5 triangular reflected segments, the mouth of the

tube closed by a densely villous ring of hairs around the place of insertion

of the exserted stamens, the berry encircled by the longer enlarged calyx :

such characters are foreign to Lycium, but closely correspond with Salpi-

chroma, especially with its section Perizoma; this is strongly indicated by

‘the triangular segments of the corolla, showing a valvate zstivation, while

those of Lycium are always very rounded, and remarkably imbricated ; this

again is farther confirmed by the total absence of any induvial remains of

the corolla after its fall, which is a constant feature in Lycium. The cha-

racters of this plant appeared to M. Dunal so different from others of that

genus, as to draw from him the expression “‘ an genus diversum?”’ I think

there can be little doubt of its being allied to S. rhomboidea (Ill. So. Am.

Pl. pl. 1).

In regard to the second plant, L. serpyllifolium, Dun., I observe, from M.

Dunal’s description, that its leaves are not fasciculated, its flowers are soli-

tary and furnished beneath the calyx with narrow linear bracts, its calyx is

split to the base into lear segments, its filaments are recurved at the apex,

and its anthers subhemispherical and ciliated, with divaricated lobes; these

are all characters quite foreign to Lycium, and more appertaining to Scro-

phulariacee.

Since the above was written, I have seen the original specimen in Dr.

Burchell’s collection, and find my previous inferences fully verified. As the

plant is yet otherwise undescribed, I will here annex its characters: it is

difficult to imagine upon what grounds it could have been referred to

Lycium.

Peliostomum serpyllifolium. Lycium serpyllifolium, Dun. in DC. Prodr.

xii. 509 ;—suffruticosum, ramis e basi erectiusculis, subvirgatis, rugosis,

striatis, albescentibus, ramulis brevibus, glabris, apice rigide et obsolete

pubescentibus, foliosis; foliis alternis, viridibus, ovatis obovatisve, sub-

obtusis, in petiolum brevem attenuatis, crassis, enerviis, glaberrimis; pe-

dunculo axillari, brevi, uniflori, bracteolis 2 setiformibus, oppositis, infra

calycem gerente, calycis persisteutis sepalis 5 linearibus, rigidé puberulis,

corolla calyce 3-plo longiore, tubo supra basin contracto, demum obconico,

hine late ampliato, nervis plurimis lineato, rigide glanduloso-pubescente,

limbi laciniis 5, rotundis, reticulato-venosis et maculato-pictis; capsula

4, Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lyciuin.

ceded by a long string of characters, a mere repetition of the

generic diagnosis, without a single differential feature to discri-

minate it from other sections ; while Hulycium and Lyciobatos are

simply adopted from Endlicher (the latter being the Jsodontia of

Don) ; these last are founded on the inequality or equality of the

teeth of the calyx, and the greater or less inclusion of the sta-

mens; the latter circumstance, of course, depends on the rela-

tive depth of the incisures of the corolla: the former character 1s

so uncertain in its value, that in the same specimen the calyx is

sometimes found regularly 5-toothed, while at other times it

assumes a somewhat bilabiate form, caused during its partial

growth by the splitting of two or three of its teeth: im regard

to the relative depth of the segments of the border of the corolla,

and the consequent amount of inclusion or exclusion of the

stamens, I find the extremes of these opposite features mixed

together in all the different sections, so that notwithstanding it

has been proposed as the rule of distinction, this character has

been wholly disregarded in the distribution of the species, as

will be seen in the sequel. The best proof that can be shown of

the small utility aud value of these characters is evidenced by the

fact, that while other botanists include in the Jsodontia of Don

(Lyctobatos, Endl.), Lycium Afrum, tenue, propinquum, rigidum,

cinereum, horridum and tetrandrum, and exclude them from Euly-

cium, M. Dunal separates L. Afrum, rigidum, and two others, to

constitute his section Amblymeris, leaving all the other species

above mentioned in Hulycium; his Lyciobatos being confined to

the old Linnzan species L. Huropeum and three others, that

have no relationship with it whatever, the former species being

placed by other botanists in Hulyctum. Kunth and Schlech-

tendal, again, station L. Huropeum, barbatum, and Chinense in

Eulycium, and L. Afrum in the section corresponding to Lycio-

batos. This shows what different constructions various authors

give to the same characters, and how useless they are for pur-

poses of discrimination.

oblonga acuta calvee paullo longiore.—C. B.S. ad Buffel-bout, Lat. 30° 20'

legit el. Burchell.—v. s. in herb. Burchell, no. 1596.—Frutex subpedalis,

radice fusiformi, lignoso, 5-pollicari; folia 3-5 lin. longa, $-1 lin. lata,

pedunculus 1 lin. longus, bracteol 4 lin. longi, sepala linearia, acuta, rigida,

erecta, 2 lin. longa; corolla 5 lin. longa, 22 lin. lata, contractione basali

calvce breviori, limbi lacinize subzequales ; stamina didynama, inelusa, fila-

menta membranacea, compressa, e contractione tubi orta, apice spiraliter

voluta, anthere subtriangulares, aquales, pilis longis hispid, loculis con-

fluentibus, rima verticali dehiscentes, marginibus valvarum rigide ciliatis :

ovarium conico-oblongum, calyce tertio brevius, glabrum ; stylus usque ad

medium hirsutulus, superne inflexus, subexsertus, stigma minimum, emar-

ginato-bilobum : capsula 2-valvis, 24 lin. longa, lq lin. lata, apice sub-

compressa, acuta, valvis dissepimento parallelis, semibifidis, sepalis per-

sistentibus amplexa.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 5

In order to prevent a multiplication of these errors, it appears

desirable to abolish these sections altogether, and to distribute

the species of Lycium in three new divisions, founded simply ou

the relative depth of the incisures of the corolla ; viz.—1. Brachy-

cope, where the lobes of the border are one-third (or less) of the

entire length of the corolla; 2. Mesocope, where the segments

are yet longer, but do not exceed the length of the tube ; and

3. Macrocope, where the divisions of the corolla exceed in length

that of the tube: in this latter case the stamens are affixed in the

throat of the tube, and are far exserted, when the border becomes

expanded.

I have repeatedly endeavoured to show that Lycium should

not be classed among the Solanacee, because of the very imbri-

cate estivation of the segments of the corolla. Prof. Schlech-

tendal more than twenty years ago (Linn. vii. 72) clearly indi-

cated his doubts to this effect. M.Dunal however, in the ‘ Pro-

dromus,’ still follows the example of preceding botanists in ar-

ranging Lycium in that family, and constitutes it the type of one

of his great divisions of the Svlaninee (Lycinee), which there

comprises a number of genera that have little relation with it, or

with each other, as I have shown (fy. op. x1. p. 9). Evidence

had previously been offered by me demonstrating its position in

the family of the Atropacee and in the tribe Atre ope, as it pos-

sesses those essential characters by which that tribe is pecu-

harized (Aw). op. ii. 166). Although in its general features it

offers some approach to Atropa, it comes nearest to Mandragora

in its floral structure, but not in its habit, agreemg with it in the

form of its calyx, its tubular corolla with a border of five equal

segments having an imbricated estivation, one beg always

exterior ; in its stamens inserted in the tube, the filaments often

very unequal in length, being generally furnished with tufts of

hair a little above the geniculated points of their insertion; in

the style bemg declined away from the external lobe of the

border; in the form of its stigma, its bilocular ovarium with

large fleshy placentze adnate to the dissepiment, in its baccate

fruit supported by its persistent unchanged calyx, and its spiral

terete embryo.

The calyx in Lycium is generally small and cupshaped, with

five erect teeth ; these are mostly equal, but sometimes one, two,

or three of the teeth become imperfectly confluent with the

others, appearing thus irregularly 3-toothed or bilabiate, a

feature originating, as before observed, in the partial splitting of

the teeth, a character that often varies in amount with its age,

and in the same specimen: it is always persistent, and little

changed with the growth of the fruit. ‘The corolla is always

contracted below the point of insertion of the stamens, is cylin-

drical towards the base, the tube being often inflated or more or

6 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

less funnel-shaped above, with a border sometimes narrow, having

five small rounded imbricated lobes, or frequently these divisions

are longer, beimg often continued through the whole infundibu-

liform portion of the tube to the insertion of the filaments, in

which case they become wholly exserted after the expansion of

the border: these features are so constant in different individuals

as to afford excellent sectional characters. The corolla, although

very often symmetrical in its form, is not constantly so, for in

many species the tube is more or less inflated upon the side

opposite to that of the more exterior lobe of the border, and

both stamens and style are somewhat declined towards this gib-

bous portion: one, two or three of the stamens are often consi-

derably shorter than the others, which do not exceed the total

length of the corolla ; they are sometimes even still shorter, and

wholly included within the tube after the expansion of the

border. The filaments are generally geniculated, or suddenly

bent at the point of their insertion into the tube of the corolla,

and again curve a little above this point into an erect position,

and here they are often furnished with a dense globular tuft of

white hairs, which form a fornix closing the mouth of the con-

tracted portion of the tube around the base of the style; in

several cases the filaments at their base are distinguished by a

flat adnate fleshy process, fringed on its margin, bearmg some

analogy to the tooth of the filaments in Cestrwm, or the gland-

like scale in Zygophyllacee; they are sometimes altogether

smooth. The ovarium is seated upon a short columnar support,

to which the base of the corolla is persistently adnate: after

impregnation, the corolla breaks away by an irregular circum-

scissile line, leaving a free persistent cup, which “encircles the

lower moiety of the ovarium : in the details given of many species

of Lycium by M. Dunal, he describes this as a dentate cupular

proper disk, but that is certainly a mistake ; this circumscission

of the corolla is a constant feature, and may always be relied

upon as a good generic character, but this fact has hitherto

escaped attention. The base of the ovary, enclosed within this

induvial cup, is at the same time marked bya glandular enlarge-

ment of a different colour, which is a true adnate hypogynous

disk, although sometimes this is almost obsolete. The ovarium

is uniformly 2-locular, with numerous ovules in each cell attached

to a thickened placenta adnate to the dissepiment. The berries

supported on the small persistent calyx are scarlet, black, or

blue: they contain several flattened reniform seeds, surrounded

by pulp, and attached to the central placenta : their slender

terete embryo, enclosed in solid albumen, is spirally helical, that

is to say, it consists of more than a single volution, which is not

coiled in a plane, but rises in the middle in a slightly conical

form like the whorl of a snail-shell ; the radicle, equal in length

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 7

and diameter to the cotyledons, points to the basal angle of the

seed at some distance from the lateral hilum, which is situated

in a conspicuous sinus on the ventral margin. The following is

offered as a more exact expression of its generic features than

that given in the ‘ Prodromus’ referred to.

Lycium, Linn.; DC. Prodr. xiii. 508 (char. emend.).—Calyx

tubuloso-campanulatus, 5-dentatus, vel sub-5-fidus, dentibus

seepe irregularibus vel aliquantulum confluentibus, persistens.

Corolla tubulosa vel infundibuliformis, tubo imo constricto

et hinc demum circumscisso, limbo 5- rarius 4-fido, laciniis

rotundatis vel oblongis, obtusis, tubo brevioribus aut lon-

gioribus, reflexis, estivatione valde imbricatis, lateribus sese

ample tegentibus. Stamina 5, rarius 4, laciniis alterna, seepe

ineequalia, medio vel supra basin tubi inserta, longitudine

corolle aut breviora ; fi/amenta filiformia, glabra, vel supra

insertionem semper geniculatam interdum barbata, sepe lon-

gius hirsuta, aut ad basin glandula lineari antice sita, margine

ciliata donata ; anthere oblonge, 2-loculares, loculis adnatis,

eequaliter 2-valvatis, rima longitudinali margine dehiscentibus.

Pollen globosum longitudinaliter 3-sulcatum. _Ovariwm brevi-

ter stipitatum, oblongum, imo disco carnoso adnato seepissime

fere obsoleto et cupula libera (coroll reliquo) cireumdatum,

2-loculare, placentis dissepimento coadunatis, multiovulatis.

Stylus simplex, staminibus subzequilongus, apice paullo in-

crassatus. Stigma depresso-capitatum, plus minusve 2-lobum.

Bacca calyce spe irregulariter fisso suffulta, globosa, aut

ovata, 2-locularis. Semina plurima, compressa, reniformia ;

testa scrobiculata, crustacea; embryo intra albumen carnosum,

helico-spiralis, teres, radicula angulo basali spectante, hiloque

marginali evitante, cotyledonibus semiteretibus «quilonga.—

Arbuscule vel frutices sepius spinosi, presertim in America et

Africa, pauci in Europa australi et Asia crescentes ; folia alterna,

integra, sepissime e gemmis foliaceis axillaribus fasciculata ;

flores pedunculati, solitarii, gemini, vel aggregati, axillares, vel

sepius e gemmulis foliaceis in spinis sistentes, aut rarius ex ax-

illis approwimatis pseudo-terminales ; corolle albide, flavescentes,

rose@, vel coccinee.

1. Bracuycorse. Corolla fere cylindrica, interdum paullo ventri-

cosa, limbi laciniis parvulis, tubi dimidio longitudine, vel adhuc

sepius brevioribus.

A. GERONTOGEZ.

* Filamenta levia. Sp. 1 ad 8.

1. Lycium sevum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, valide spinosum, spinis

patulis, fuscis, nudis, folio brevioribus, aut foliferis et tunc

e Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

longioribus ; foliis crebre fasciculatis, spathulato-oblongis,

apice rotundatis, a medio im petiolum angustatis, pallidis, cras-

siusculis, eveniis, utrinque obsolete puberulis; floribus e fasci-

culis solitariis aut binis, pedunculatis, calyce brevi, tubuloso,

submembranaceo, subzequaliter 5 -dentato, dentibus ‘pubescen-

tibus, corolla subcylindrica, tubo superne paullo ampliato,

utrinque glaberrimo, limbi laciniis 5, rotundato-ovatis, mar-

gine subciliatis, staminibus 5 inclusis, 2 faucem attingentibus,

reliquis multo brevioribus, filamentis omnino glabris, paullo

infra medium tubi insertis ; stylo filiformi, tubo equilongo.—

Arabia.—(v. s. in herb. Hook. “‘ ad Cisternas Gedde,” Fischer,

no. 98.)

This plant appears to be Beene with that described by

M. Dunal in DC. Prodr. xiti. 524. as “ L. Mediterraneum, sectio

longiflorum, an species diversa? var. 6. cinereum,” and found in

the same place by Schimper. Its leaves are 6 to 9 lines long,

13 or 2, rarely 3 lines broad ; the peduncle is 1} line, and the

calyx barely 1 line long; the tube of the corolla 5 lines in

length, 14 line diameter; segments 14 line long, 1 line broad,

the margins being slightly ciliated, while all the rest of the

corolla is smooth: the stamens are perfectly glabrous, as well

as the tube beneath their insertion, one of the stamens being

only two-thirds the length of the two that reach the mouth of

the tube*.

2. Lycium Europeum, Linn. Syst. 1. 228; Mant. 97 ; Sibthorp,

Fl. Gree. i. 155. tab. 236. LL. salicifolium, Mill. Dict. no. 3.

tab. 171. fig. 2. L. Mediterraneum (§ breviflorum), Dun. in

DC. Prodr. xii. 524, cum aliis variis synonymis et citatio-

nibus auctorum ;—ramulis erectis, subteretibus, glabris, vel

albido-pruinosis, spinosis, junior ius angulatis, albescentibus,

et glanduloso- pilosulis, spinis nudis, vel longioribus et gem-

miferis, gemmis spe tuberculatis ; foliis fasciculatis, spa-

thulato- oblongis, apice acutis vel obtusiusculis, imo in petio-

lum elongatulum cuneatis, subglabris vel sub lente parce glan-

duloso-pilosis ; floribus e fasciculis solitariis vel binis, pedun-

culo longiusculo, calyce subpoculiformi, membranaceo, pri-

mum equaliter 5-dentato, demum sub-bilabiato, dentibus

obtusiusculis sphacelato-puberulis ; corolla tubuloso-infundi-

buliformi, glabra, tubo intus infra insertionem staminum

piloso, limbi laciniis 5, rotundis, glabris, tubo 4to brevioribus,

staminibus 5 inclusis, faucem attingentibus, 3 paullulo bre-

vioribus, filamentis medio tubi insertis, et im nervis tot-

* A drawing with analytical details of this species is given in the ‘ [llustr.

South Amer. Plants,’ vol. ii. plate 64 A.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 9

idem decurrentibus, hine tuboque pilosulis, parte hbera om-

nino glabris; stylo capillaceo, vix exserto, cum ovario arti-

culato: bacca pisiformi subglobosa.—Per totam Europam

Australem, presertim in Grecia abundat, unde pro sepibus

antiquissime introductum, forsan m Africam Borealem spon-

~taneum, Insulasque Madeira et Canarienses.—v. s. in herb.

Hook. (Madeira) Lemann, no. 552 (in sepibus Portts Sancti

abundans)*.

M. Dunal rejects the Linnean name, merely because the plant

is not common throughout all Europe; but on the same ground,

the name he has substituted is equally inappropriate, since it is

acknowledged by himself, that although it occurs im Southern

Europe and the Mediterranean Islands, it has originally been

introduced there. If we must reject the Linnean name, for

which I can see no reason, it would be infinitely better to adapt

a synonym nearly as old, in preference to a new and unsuitable

term, in which case Miller’s name, by common rule, would claim

precedence over that of M. Dunal.

A considerable difference is observable in this and the pre-

ceding plant, both in habit and in the structure of its flowers.

It is a species well known, and frequently found in gardens in

England. The barren spines measure 3 to 5 lines, but the gem-

miferous spines are much longer: the leaves are usually from

9 to 15 lines long, 1} to 3 lines broad, and attenuated into a

slender petiole; the pedicel is 2 lines in length, the calyx is

3 line long; the tube of the corolla is a little curved, 5 lines

long, 12 line diameter in the middle, 2} lines in the mouth, the

rounded glabrous segments being 1} line in diameter. A spe-

cimen in Sir Wm. Hooker’s herbarium from one of the Canary

Islands (Palma, Bourgeau, no. 924), affords a good example of

what has been before said respecting the variation of habit and

difference in the size and shape of the leaves sometimes found in

the same individual. One branchlet bears some short, stout,

bare, axillary spines, little more than 3 lines in length; but

other axils that are without spines, produce a single large fleshy

leaf from 2 to 2} inches long, and 4 an inch broad, somewhat

obtuse at the apex, and attenuated into a petiolar base; another

straight branch, 18 inches long, is beset with numerous straight

bare spines, 1 to 1} inch long, accompanied by separate alter-

nate leaves, 3 to 6 lines in length, 1 to 3 lines broad, and with-

out flowers ; a third, 2nd more fragmentary portion, has a single

spine, 23 inches long, bearing three small bare spmes, each 3

lines in length, and a single spineless nodose axil, producing five

fasciculated leaves, about an inch long, and 3 lines broad, with

* A drawing with details of this plant is shown (/oc. cit.), plate 64 B.

0 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

four’ flowers, the peduncles of which are 4 lines in length: in all

of these the corolla had fallen off, leaving the ovary encircled by

its induvial cup and the persistent calyx.

3. Lycium Indicum, R. Wight, Icon. tab. 1403 ;—glaberrimum,

ramis flexuosis, ramulis divaricatis, apice spinescentibus, vel

abbreviatis, spimosis, spinis inferioribus nudis ; folus e gemmis

fasciculatis, vel alternis, spathulato-oblongis, imo anguste

cuneatis, sessilibus; floribus (in specimine) subsolitariis (in

icon. cit. fasciculatis), calyce pedicello subeequilongo, tubuloso,

5-costato, dentibus cum costis continuis, sinubus rotundatis

demum inequaliter fissis : corolla (sicea) pallide flava, infundi-

buliformi, tubo calyce 4-plo longiore, glabro, limbi laciniis

rotundis, ciliatis, tubo 4to brevioribus: staminibus glabris,

valde inzequalibus, paullo supra basin tubi imsertis, quorum

2 inclusis, 3 subexsertis ; stylo exserto: bacca globosa, pisi

magnitudine, apiculata, seminibus paucis.—Penins. Indiz

Orientalis.—v. s. in herb. Hook. Guzzerat et Scinde (Stocks,

n. 112; Dr. Thomson, n. 57).

In this very distinct species the leaves vary considerably in

form; Dr. Wight received his specimens from Dr. Stocks, and

from the notes accompanying it, this distinguished botanist was

led to infer that it might be only a variety of L. Huropeum: in

those notes Dr. Stocks talks of its bearded stamens, evidently

confounding his own specimens with another species growing in

Scinde. In Dr. Thomson’s plant the leaves are fasciculated,

obovate-lanceolate, 4 to 6 lines long, 1 to 14 le broad ; the

peduncle is 1 line long; the calyx, 14 line in length, is tubular,

with long obtuse teeth ; the corolla is contracted below, its tube

being smooth and 4 lines long, its border having five rounded

ciliated segments | line in diameter; the membranaceous fila-

ments are quite smooth and included, two of them measuring

2 lines, the other three 3 lines; the style is 4 lines in length ;

the ovary, supported by a closely adnate gland, is surrounded at

its base by the induvial cup of the corolla. The specimens from

Guzzerat have leaves 12 lines in length and 4 lines in breadth ;

those from Scinde are obovate or oblong, 8 lines long, 3 to 4

lines broad: the pedicels, one or two in each axil, are 2 lines in

length*.

4, Lycium oxycarpum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xu. 518. Lycium

Afrum, Drége.—C. B. 8.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Drége).

The specimen above quoted is certainly distinct from L. Afrum ;

it is entirely smooth, with large knotted glands in the axils, out

* This species with analytical details is seen (loc. cit.), plate 64 C.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 11

of which the spmes grow; the leaves are 9 to 14 lines long, 2 to

24 lines broad; the pedicels are 5 lines long, the smooth cup-

shaped calyx is 1} line long, the points of the angular teeth being

tomentose ; the corolla is tubular and smooth, the tube being

34 lines long, 14 line diameter, with small round segments 2 line

diameter: the stamens are included, the filaments being dilated at

the base, and inserted near the bottom of the tube, and are almost

its length, subequal, slender and smooth : the style is exserted*.

The variety «. grandiflorum of M. Dunal appears to be Lycium

austrinum, nob. ; var. 8. parviflorum and y. angustifolium may

probably be small-leaved varieties of LZ. oxycarpum, but it is im-

possible to judge of this without examination.

5. Lycium intricatum, Boiss. Elench. Pl. Nov. Hisp. 143; Voy.

Bot. Esp. n. 1215; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xii. 525.—Hispania

et Africa Boreali.—»v. s. in herb. Hook. Oran. Balansa, n. 659.

In this specimen the spines are approximate, thick, horizontally

spreading, 1 to 14 inch long, bearing numerous fascicles of

leaves larger than those described by M. Dunal; they are from

4. to 6 lines long, 1 line broad: the peduncles are 2 lines long ;

the calyx, slightly pubescent, is 1 line ; the tube of the corolla,

quite glabrous, is 6 or 7 lines long; the lobes of the border are

nearly orbicular, smooth, and 1 line long ; the filaments are quite

smooth, and fixed in the middle of the tube; two of the anthers

reach the mouth, one is shorter, and the two others are a little

exserted: the style attains the length of the lower antherf.

6. Lycium halophyllum, Welw. MSS. n. sp. ;—fruticosum, nunc

2-pedale, nunc vix 2-unciale, glaberrimum, ramulis virgatis,

costato-angulatis, inermibus vel spinosis : foliis subfasciculatis,

valde polymorphis, oblongis, utrinque acutiusculis, vel obtusis

et spathulatis, crassissimis, glabris, vix petiolatis; floribus

solitariis, calyce tubulari, 5-dentato, pedicello subeequilongo,

corolle glabre laciniis rotundatis, tubo infundibuliformi 6to

brevioribus.—Lusitania.—v. s. in herb. Hook. ; ad rupes mari-

timas prope Lagos et Cabo 8S. Vicente (Welwich. herb. Algarv.

n. 717).

A very distinct species, varying greatly in its height, form,

and aspect, and in the size and shape of its fleshy leaves: those

of the shorter plants are more fleshy and spathulate, 3 or 4 lines

long and 1 line broad ; the larger plants have straight branches,

with spines 3 to 11 inch long, with leaves 5 or 6 lines in length

and 2 or 3 lines in breadth; the peduncles are 1 line long; the

* For a drawing and detail of this species see (Joc. cit.) plate 64 D.

+ A drawing with details of this species is shown (Joc. cit.), plate 64 E.

‘12 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

calyx, of the same length, is narrow, tubular, with five short equal

ciliate teeth ; the corolla is narrow, slightly funnel- shaped, a little

curved, smooth, 5 lines long, with five nearly orbicular segments,

$ line long, with ciliate margins; the filaments are smooth, in-

serted below the middle of the tube, two of them reaching the

mouth, two somewhat shorter, with the fifth intermediate*.

7. Lycium orientale (n. sp.) ;—ramulis griseis, substriatis, vir-

gatis, spinosis, spinis longis, gemimniferis ; foliis fasciculatis,

aut alternis, lineari- spathulatis, in petiolum gracilem atte-

nuatis, glaberrimis, aut pubescentibus; floribus solitariis, pe-

dicello calyce tubuloso subzequaliter 4—5-dentato ciliato 2plo

longiore ; corollz glabree laciniis brevibus 4—5 oblongis, mar-

gine subciliatis, tubo anguste cylindrico superne paullo latiore

4to brevioribus, staminibus inclusis, 4-5, subzequalibus, fila-

mentis glabris, tubo 4to brevioribus, antheris oblongis, basi

cordatis, apice connectivo excurrente mucronatis, faucem attin-

gentibus ; stylo elongato, capillari, apice incurvo, exserto.—

ton Minor et Arabia. —v. s. in herb. Hook. Smyrna. Arabia

Petra (H. Bossier).

This species is probably common throughout the Levant, but

has been confounded with L. Europeum and L. Barbarum, from

both of which it is quite distinct. The two specimens above

cited differ much in appearance, the Smyrna plant having much

larger, linear, subulate, veinless leaves, generally alternate, some-

what thinner in texture and quite smooth: that from Arabia has

shorter, spathulate, crisp, fasciculate, pubescent leaves, and some-

times tetramerous flowers, but in the form of the calyx, the length

of the tube of the corolla, the shape and size of the segments of

its border, the very short similar glabrous stamens, with singu-

larly mucronate anthers, the two specimens quite agree. The

latter plant has quite the habit and appearance of L. “Barbarum,

but it differs in the greater length of the tube of the corolla, its

shorter and entirely smooth stamens and mucronate anthers.

The Smyrna specimen greatly resembles L. Huropeum in appear-

ance; its leaves are 12 to 15 lines long, 2 lines broad; the

pedicel is 2 lines long, the calyx 1 line, the tube of the corolla

51 lines, its segments a le. In the Arabian plant the leaves

are 3 to 5 lines long, 1 ‘line broad, obtuse, slightly pubescent ;

the peduncle is 2 lines long, the narrow tubular calyx often

14 line long, the tube of the corel 4 lines, the segments | line,

and the filaments are barely a line in lengtht.

8. Lycium Persicum (n. sp.) ;—glaberrimum, ramulis valde no-

* This species with analytical details is shown (Coc. eit.) plate 64 F.

+ A drawing with details of this species is shown (loc. cit.) in plate 65 A.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 13

dosis, breviter spinosis ; foliis spathulato-obovatis vel oblongis,

in nodis glomerosis fasciculatis ; floribus solitariis, calyce par-

vulo, tubuloso, subzequaliter 5-dentato, margine ciliato ; corolla

violacea, glabra, Jonge et anguste tubulosa, superne paullo

ampliata, limbi lacinus 5, ovatis, margine subciliatis, tubo

sexto brevioribus, staminibus 5, medio insertis, glabris, 2 bre-

vissimis, 2 fauce vix exsertis, | intermedio incluso ; stylo tenui,

stigmate exserto.—Arabia.—v. s. im herb. Hook. (Aden, in

maritimis, Dr. Hooker) ; (idem, Dr. T. Thomson).

Near L. orientale, but much more gnarled and stunted in its

growth ; its corolla more slender, its stamens very unequal in

length, and its anthers not furnished with the same long mucro-

nate point. Its branches are somewhat flexuose, with rather

close internodes, and a spine grows out of each salient node : the

leaves are 3 to 9 lines long, } to 2 lines broad ; the peduncle is

2 lines, the calyx 1 line, the tube of the corolla 5 lines, its seg-

ments 3 to 1 line long: the shorter stamens are 1 line, the inter-

mediate 2 lines, the longer ones 22 lines in length: the flowers

are “blue purple*.”

* Filamenta basi hirsuta. Sp. 9 ad 14.

9, Lycium Austrinum (n. sp.) ; (an L. oxycarpum, var. a. grandi-

florum, Dun. in DC. xii. 518 ?)—ramosum, inerme, vel rarius

breviter spinosum; ramulis tortuosis, subnitidis, grosse no-

dosis, nodis approximatis, creberrime foliosis ; foliis 5-20 e

nodis fasciculatis, glaberrimis, longe lanceolatis, obtusis, vel

acutiusculis, in petiolum tenuem spathulatis ; floribus e fasci-

culis 2-5, pedunculis folio brevioribus, calyceque tubuloso

4—5-dentato 3plo longioribus; corolla majuscula, tubulosa,

subincurva, imo crassa, coarctata, glabra, intus paullo infra

insertionem staminum pubescente, limbi laciniis 5 rotundatis,

nervosis, glabris, tubo 6-8vo brevioribus, staminibus valde

inequalibus, filamentis e quarta parte tubi orientibus, imo

geniculatis et glabris, mox longiuscule hirsutis, dein glabris,

filiformibus, 2 longioribus longe exsertis, 2 intermediis faucem

attingentibus, 1 multo breviori inserto; stylo filiformi, apice

crassiusculo, incurvo, exserto.—In Africa Australi.—v. s. in

herb. Hook. Gamka River (Burke).

A plant with large conspicuous flowers like those of L. Afrum,

but narrower and paler; the leaves are much larger and more

crowded ; it differs moreover, essentially, in the structure of the

fowers. The leaves are comparatively thin in texture, veinless,

nearly an inch long, including the slender petiole, and 1} to 2

* This species with analytical details is delineated (Joc. cit.) in plate 65 B.

- 14 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

lines broad ; the peduncles are 6 lines long; the tubular calyx

2 lines, the tube of the corolla 8 or 9 lines, the segments are

1 to 1} line long*.

10. Lycium hirsutum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xii. 521.—C. B. 8.—

v.s.in herb. Hook. (Drége, 7866 6). Graham’s Town (Ruther-

ford).

This is well distinguished by the rather dense pubescence

which clothes the stemlets, the spines and the leaves. In Drége’s

specimen the leaves are elliptic, oblong, acute, attenuated at the

base into a slender petiole of one-third the length of the blade ;

the total length being 9 to 12 lines, and their breadth 3 or 4 lines.

The specimen from Graham’s Town is much more branched, the

branchlets and spines are nearly at right angles and densely

beset with clusters of leaves: here the petiole is nearly obsolete,

the leaves are only 3 or 4 lines long and 14 or 2 lines broad :

the flowers, upon an extremely short peduncle, are nearly sessile :

the tubular and very pubescent calyx is larger than in the other

specimen, its tube being 2 lines, and its nearly equal linear teeth

being widely spread and 1 or 14 line long: the tube of the

corolla is 4 lines long, nearly cylindrical, with a border of five

rounded oblong segments, ciliated on the margins, nearly a line

in length: the stamens are nearly equal in length, inserted con-

siderably below the middle of the tube, hirsute for about one-

fourth their length, and reach the mouth: the flowers in this

specimen are in a bad condition +.

11. Lycium arenicolum (n. sp.) ;—spinosum, glaberrimum, ramis

costato-angulatis, ramulis superioribus elongatis, subvirgatis,

inferioribus in spinis nodosis abbreviatis, nodis osseis, nitidis,

cupulatis, utrinque lateraliter in costis decurrentibus ; folis

creberrime fasciculatis, sessilibus, linearibus, carnosulis, acutis;

floribus 4-meris e fasciculis solitariis, brevissimis, pedunculatis,

calyce ineequaliter 4-dentato, dentibus ciliatis ; corolla parva,

tubulosa, limbi laciniis 4 oblongis, ciliatis, tubo tertio brevi-

oribus ; staminibus insequalibus, paullo supra basin insertis, 1

parum exserto, 2 faucem attingentibus, quarto breviori incluso,

filamentis basi hirsutulis; ovario induvio corollz circumdato,

et disco carnoso rubro arcte adnato suffulto ; stylo apice m-

crassato exserto.—C. B. S.—v. s. in herb. Hook. ; in arenosis ad

Orange River (Burke).

This plant has greatly the habit and appearance of L. tenue,

* A figure of this species with sectional details is given (loc. cit.),

plate 65 C.

+ This species with sectional drawings is represented (/oc. cit.) in

plate 65 D.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 15

and is remarkable for the cupular nodes that project from the

axils, and that are decurrent on each side with the angles of the

stem : five to ten leaves grow out of each node, and are 5 to 7

lines long, 4 lme broad : the peduncle is barely longer than half

a line, the calyx 1 line, the teeth of the corolla 24 lines, the seg-

ments of the border 4 line long*.

12. Lycium oxycladwm (un. sp.) ;—ramosissinum, glaberrimum,

ramis patentibus, ramulisque angulatis, Jongiusculis, apice

spinosis, nodis approximatis, osseis, cupulatis ; foliis parvulis,

4-7 hine creberrime fasciculatis, spathulato-linearibus, carno-

sulis; floribus e fasciculis solitariis, breviter pedunculatis,

calyce glabro, poculiformi, subzqualiter 5-dentato, dentibus

acutis subciliatis, corolle tubo infundibuliformi glabro, imo

intra calycem piloso, limbi laciniis ovatis, tubo 4—5to brevi-

oribus, margine haud ciliatis, staminibus non longe a basi in-

sertis, filamentis imo glabriusculis, dein longiuscule hirsu-

tulis, superne glabris, 2 longioribus exsertis, 2 medianis fau-

cem attingentibus, quinto breviori incluso.—C. B. S.—v. s. in

herb. Hook. Uitenhage (Harvey, 81). South Africa (Burke).

A plant with much the habit of Z. tetrandrum, but with more

fleshy and broader leaves: the leaves are 3 or 4 lines long, 4 line

broad ; the pedicel is 14 line, the calyx 1 line in length, the tube

of the corolla 3 or 4 lines, the segments of the border roundish

or oval, 3 line longf.

13. Lyctum roridum (n. sp.) ;—viscoso-roridum, spinosissimum,

intricato-ramosum, ramis fuscis, glaucis, striatulis, nodosis,

flexuosis, ramulis spinosis ; foliis parvulis, 2-10 creberrime

fasciculatis, spathulato-oblongis, vel ovatis, carnosis, pallide

glaucis, elandulis minutissimis vViscosis utrinque punctatis,

pilisque brevissimis sparse scabridis vel interdum glabriusculis ;

floribus in medio fasciculorum solitariis, pedunculatis, calyce

subtubuloso, zqualiter profunde et acute dentate, carnoso,

punctis glandulosis pilisque brevissimis munito, corolle tubo

infundibuliformi glabro, limbi laciniis ovatis, tubo 4to bre-

vioribus ; staminibus infra medium insertis, imo pilis articu-

latis longiusculis dense lanatis, hine superne glabris, mequa-

libus, omnibus exsertis, bacca globosa, parva, pallida, mucro-

nulata, calyce cupulato, dentibus recurvis suffultan—In Africa

Australi.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Burke).

This plant, from its close external resemblance, would readily

* A drawing of this species with analytical details is shown (Joc. cit.),

plate 65 E.

+ An outline of this species with floral details is seen (Joc. cit.), plate 65 F.

“16 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

be confounded with ZL. ovycladum, but on careful examination

it will be found extremely different. The fleshy leaves are 1 or 2

lines long, 4 line broad, cuneate below, with numerous yellowish

immersed shining glands on both surfaces; the peduncle is 13

line long ; the tube of the calyx is equal in length to the five equal

erect divisions, which are 3 line long ; the tube of the corolla is 23

lines; the segments of its border } line long ; the berry is nearly

2 lines in diameter, 2-celled, containing eight glaucous-brown,

oval, compressed, and somewhat cochleate seeds ; these are affixed

to the lower portion of the dissepiment, which is membranaceous,

and slit in the middle of the upper portion, as in the Duboisiee*.

14. Lycium acutifolium, E. Meyer; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xin.

519.—Pro char. floral. a cl. Dunalio donato, substit.: ca-

lycis dentibus sequalibus, brevibus, acutis, ciliatis, corolle

elabre laciniis 5 ovatis, tubo superne valde ampliato, basi an-

gustissimo, 4to brevioribus, glabris, stamimibus inzequalibus

haud procul basin insertis, imo longiuscule hirsutis, superne

glabris, 2 longe, 2 paullo exsertis, quinto multo breviori in-

cluso ; stylo exserto.—C. B. S.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Drege

sub nomine L. acutifolium b. E. M.)

A very distinct species, remarkable for its thin, membra-

naceous, spathulate, oval, fasciculated leaves, and its very long

peduncle. The leaves are 3 or 4 lines long, 1} to 2 lines broad,

attenuated at base into a slender petiole ; the very smooth pe-

duncle is 6 lines long ; the calyx is 1 line; the tube of the corolla,

contracted below, is in its upper portion subcampanulate, 3 lines

in length; the segments of the border being 1 line long.

“ek Filamenta paullo supra basin glabra, mox globula pilorum

donata. Sp. 15 ad 22.

15. Lycium Afrum, Linn.; Dun. in DC. Prodr. xii. 521, cum

aliis synonymis et citationibus auctorum.—Pro char. flor. cl.

Dunalii substitut. sequent.;—calyce glabro, seepe margime

flosculoso-puberulo, majusculo, campanulato, equaliter ac bre-

viter 5-dentato, demum 2-3-fido; corolla conspicua, mfundi-

buliformi-campanulata, imo breviter coarctata, glabra, limbi

laciniis 5, subrotundis, tubo 5to brevioribus, reflexis ; stami-

nibus subzequalibus, inclusis, faucem non attingentibus, fila-

mentis imo geniculatis, nudis, mox fasciculo pilorum donatis,

dein superne glaberrimis.—Africa, preesertim in C. B.S. ; an

in Africam Borealem, Hispaniam, et Lusitaniam mtroductum ?

* This species with full details is shown (Joc. cit.), plate 66 A.

+ A drawing of this species with details is seen (loc. cit.), plate 66 B.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 1b fs

—v. s. in herb. plurimis, C. B. S.; iter alia, spec. coll. Drége

(sub nomine L. rigidum, b. Thunb.).

This is a well-known species, long cultivated in Europe, con-

spicuous for its large crimson flowers and copious small foliage.

The specimen above quoted from Drége’s collection, and described

by M. Dunal in the ‘ Prodromus,’ p. 523, as L. rigidum, var. an-

gustifolium, Dun., appears to me without doubt a true L. Afrum.

Specimens from different parts of Southern Africa vary in the

length and thickness of their crowded fasciculate leaves, and the

species is easily distinguished from all others by its br oad calyx

and large dark-coloured corolla. ‘The species L. propinquum

(DC. Prodr. xii. 526) was founded by G. Don (Dict. iv. 459)

simply upon Thunberg’s description of L. Afrum in ‘ Linn. Trans.’

ix. 153: here, the words “folia unguicularia” are translated,

“leaves a nail long,” which M. Dunal has reconstrued into

“fohia 24 pollicaria : 2? to me it appears that Thunberg meant to

express the essential feature, of unguiculate or spathulate leaves :

under this more probable construction there is absolutely nothing

in Thunberg’s character at variance with what we know of L.

Afrum®*.

16. Lycium carnosum, Poir.; Dunal im DC. Prodr. xin. 522.—

C. B. S.; an L. Afri mera varietas ?

Not having met with any specimen of this reputed species, I

cannot form a decided opinion respecting it, but from the pub-

lished descriptions, no very essential difference is appreciable be-

tween this and the preceding species: the principal distinction,

-and that derived from cultivated specimens, consists in its some-

what smaller berry being of a deep blue, while the other is of a

blackish red colour, a mere difference of shade. M. Dunal, from

@ specimen cultivated at Montpelier, says it is very close to

L. Afrum, differing only in its smaller stems, fewer spines,

thicker, shorter and paler leaves, and in a more greenish hue in

the colour of the corolla: a considerable difference in both these

respects 1s often witnessed in indigenous specimens of L. Afrum:

it does not therefore appear, that the validity of the species rests

upon very satisfactory grounds; and this is confirmed by the

fact, that among the numerous collections brought from all parts

of the Cape colony during the last few years, no specimen appears

that can be referred to this species.

17. Lycium glaucum (n. sp.) ;—spinosum, glaberrimum, intri-

cato-ramosum, ramulis rugoso-rimosis, vel levigatis, juniori-

bus niveis, spinis seepius brevibus, RIPE ex axillis strumoso-

* An outline of this species with its floral analysis is shown (Joc. cit.),

plate 66C.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 2

18 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

nodosis; folus e nodis 5-10, fasciculatis, angustissime linea-

ribus, carnosulis, glauco-pallidis ; floribus in fasciculis soli-

tariis, folio paullo longioribus; pedunculo calyce tubuloso

glabro membranaceo breviter et ineequaliter 5-dentato demum

fisso subduplo longiore ; corolla glabra, infundibuliformi, pal-

lide flava, imo coarctata, limbi laciniis oblongis,.obtusis, reti-

culato-pictis, tubo tertio brevioribus ; stammibus 5, subzequa-

hibus, exsertis, filamentis gracilibus, imo breviter pilosis, 2

paullulo longioribus, tubo fasciculis totidem pilorum cum

Insertione istorum alternis mtus donato; stylo capillari,

apice inflexo, exserto.—In Persia boreali.—». s. in herb. Hook.

(Aucher Eloy, n. 5035).

This is a plant of very gnarled aspect, with prominent warty

nodes, of a pale glaucous hue, and with pale flowers half the size

of those of L. Afrum. It is very distinct from L. Barbarum, with

which it has probably been confounded. Its leaves are from 5

to 7 lines long, + or 4 line broad; the peduncle is 3 lines in

length ; the narrow tubular calyx is L$ or 2 lines long, 1 line in

diameter ; the tube of the corolla measures 4 lines, and the seg-

ments of its border 1} line, and, excepting the five tufts of hair

placed alternately with the stamens, between their insertion, it is

quite glabrous*.

18. Lycium echinatum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xi. 518.—Ad char.

el. Dunalii post descr. calycis, adde ;—corolla infundibuliformi,

pallida, 4-mera, imo coarctata, limbi lacinus rotundis, margme

ciliatis, tubo 4to brevioribus ; staminibus 4, quorum 2 alter-

natim longioribus, exsertis, alteris faucem attingentibus, fila-

mentis supra coarctationem tubi glabri insertis, hinc nudis et

geniculatis, mox fasciculo pilorum donatis.—C. B. $.—v. s. in

herb. Hook. (Drége, 7870).

The specimen above cited is quite fragmentary, and is remark-

able for the extreme smallness of its fasciculate leaves: the

branchlets appear angular and glaucous, with a few short spines,

and out of each nodose axil arises a fascicle of small narrow

linear leaves, 1 line, rarely 2 lines long, and } line broad : out of

the midst of these a single flower is seen, the peduncle being 1 line

in length; the calyx with four small equal teeth is 1 le long ;

the tube of the corolla is 2 lmes, with four orbicular segments

2 to 3 line long: the insertion of the stamens is at a point one- _

fourth from the bottom of the tube, which is quite glabrous, ex-

cepting a few ciliate hairs on the margin of the segmentst.

* This species with analytical details is seen (loc. cit.), plate 66 D.

+ A-representation of this plant with its floral analysis is given (/oc. cit.),

plate 66 E.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 19

19. Lycium tetrandrum, Thunb. Linn. Trans. ix. 154. tab, 15 ;

Dunal in DC. Prodr. xiii. 516. Lycium horridum, Thunb.

loc. cit. 152. tab. 17 ; Dunal, loc. cit. 516 ;—intricato-ramosis-

simum, spinosum, ramulis patentibus, nodulosis, foliis e nodis

fasciculatis, obovatis, vel elliptico-oblongis, basi in petiolum

brevissimum attenuatis, crassiusculis, glabris ; floribus 4-meris

in fasciculis solitariis, pedunculo brevissimo, calyce poculi-

formi, glabro, 4-costato, 4-dentato, dentibus brevibus ciliatis,

corolla glabra, infundibuliformi, limbi lacinis rotundatis,

margine ciliatis, tubo 4to brevioribus; staminibus 2 longi-

oribus exsertis, 2 alternis faucem attingentibus, filamentis

longe supra medium insertis, hie geniculatis, nudis, et cum

fasciculis totidem pilorum tubo adnatis alternis, mox globula

pilorum donatis, superne glabris.—C. B.S —v. s. in herb. Hook.

(Drége, 7872).—Uitenhage (Harvey, no. 865).—In herb. meo,

Uitenhage (Harvey, no. 1034, sub nomine Lycium horridum).

Upon the same sheet in Sir Wm. Hooker’s herbarium I find

four specimens of Drége’s collection, all fragments and very bare

of leaves; two of these agree with the figure of Thunberg’s

L. tetrandrum, the others, evidently younger branchlets, answer

to his L. horridum; the structure of the flowers being exactly

alike in both. I cannot perceive, in the copious descriptions of

these two species by M. Dunal above quoted, anything that can

constitute valid differential characters; we may therefore con-_

sider them as identical, as Sprengel long ago determined (Syst.

i. 700). The older leaves are fleshy, 3 lines long and 3 line

broad ; the younger leaves are obovate, 2 lines long: in Dr. Har-

vey’s specimen the leaves are obovate, spathulate, 7 lines long,

21 lines broad; the peduncle is 1} line, the calyx 1 line, the

tube of the corolla 3 lines, the segments of its border } or 2 line

long*.

20. Lycium tenue, Willd.; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xii. 515.—Pro

char. flor. cl. Dunalii substit. ;—pedunculo calyce panllo lon-

giore, calyce glabro, tubuloso, reticulato, subzequaliter 5-den-

tato, dentibus brevibus ciliatis ; corolla tubo infundibuliformi

imo coarctato, calyce 3plo longiore, limbi laciniis 5 erectis,

tubo 8plo brevioribus, levibus, stammibus valde inzequalibus,

infra medium tubi insertis, 2 longioribus multo exsertis, 1 me-

diano faucem attingente, 2 brevioribus inclusis ; filamentis imo

glabris et geniculatis, mox fasciculo globoso pilorum barbatis,

inde glabris.—C. B. S.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Drége, sub nomine

L. tenue.)

* An outline of this species and section of its flower is shown (Joc. cit.),

plate 66 F.

20 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

This is a mere fragmentary specimen, agreeing sufficiently

with Willdenow’s description, but whether it be identical with

the original, or it be the same as that described by M. Dunal, I

have no means of judging. The foregomg diagnosis is therefore

only founded upon Drége’s plant above mentioned : it consists of

a branchlet 5 inches long, with spinous axils + inch apart ; the

spines are slender, bare, 3 or 4 lines long, each springing out of

a crowded fascicle of des which are spathulately linear, 3 to 5

lines in length and 2 line ‘broad ; a single flower arises out of

each faseicle, the néduntle being 2 lines long ; the smooth calyx

is 14 line long, with five short rather equal teeth; the tube of

the corolla is 3 lines long, and the oblong segments ‘of its border

1 line*.

21. Lycitum cinereum, Thunb. Trans. Linn. Soc. ix. 152. tab. 16;

Dunal in DC. Prodr. xii. 516. Lycium apiculatum, Dun. loc.

cit.517. Acocanthera Lycioides, G. Don. Cestrum Lycioides,

Licht.—C. B.S.

With these plants I am wholly unacquainted, but from the

descriptions quoted, no specific diiference is percéptible between

them, as was suggested by M. Dunal himself.

22. Lycium pendulinum (n. sp.) ;—ramosum, ramulis gracilibus,

pendulinis, annotinis strumoso-nodosis, subnudis, apice spi-

nosis, junioribus foliosis, foliis e cupula ossea axillari fascicu-

latis, linearibus, acutis, in petiolum tenuem imo angustatis,

evenils, claberrimis ; flore e fasciculo solitario, pedunculo era-

cili, calyce 4plo longiore, calyce tubuloso, breviter ac subze-

qualiter 5-dentato, corolla infundibuliformi, imo intra calycem

coarctata, et extus pilosa, superne glaberrima, limbi laciniis

oblongis, venosis, tubo 4plo longioribus, staminibus meequa-

libus, uno longiore*exserto, 2 faucem attingentibus, 2 brevi-

oribus inclusis: filamentis supra coarctationem tubi insertis,

hine nudis et geniculatis, mox fasciculo globoso pilorum mu-

nitis, superne glabris ; stylo filiformi, exserto.—C. B. S.—». s.

in herb. Hook. sub nom. L. Afrum var. pendulum, N; ab E.

This plant accords more with ZL. tenue, Dun., than with L.

tenue, Willd. ; its branches are very slender and pendulous: the

leaves are 4 or 5 lines long, } line broad ; the peduncle is 3 limes

long ; the tubular calyx 2 lines, with five short erect teeth ; the

corolla is 3 lines long, and the oval segments of its border % to +

of its lengtht+.

* This species with sectional drawings is seen (Joc, cit.), plate 67 A.

+ This plant with floral details is shown (loc. cit.), plate 67 B.

[To be continued. |

Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells. 21

I].— Additions and Corrections to the Arrangement of the Families

of Bivalve Shells. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.

&e.

One of the advantages, and not the least, of preparing and pub-

lishing a revision of the state of our knowledge on any special

subject, such as the animals of Bivalve shells, are the additions to

that knowledge which its publication induces. During the time

my former paper was in the press and since its publication, I

have had an opportunity of looking over more than a thousand

moiluscous animals, and of examining the animals of more than

fifty species of Bivalves belonging to nearly as many genera,

some uf them not before observed, which has rendered it neces-

sary to make several corrections and important additions to my

former communication.

There must be added to the family Veneride the genus Cypri-

cardia of Lamarck and its subdivisions: all these animals have

two short separate siphons and a small pedal opening. I have

examined the animal of Trapezium angulatum.

Mittré has described the animal of what he calls Coralhophaga

dactyla, but M. Petit informs us that the shell intended is the Car-

dita Lithophagella of Lamarck found in the Mediterranean, and

not the Cypricardia Coralliophaga of that author, which is only

found in the West Indies. This animal greatly resembles that

of Trapezium angulatum, and should be the type of a new genus

which may be called Lithophagella. The Cypricardia vellicata

and Coralliophaga oblonga have similar animals, but all these

genera require revision.

In the Revision, vol. xiii. p.410, I placed Astarizde in the order

Veneracea, because Prof. E. Forbes in the ‘ British Mollusca,’

i. 451, described the animal of the genus as having “‘ the mantle

freely open with plain margins; slightly united posteriorly at

two points, so as to form two siphonal orifices with simple edges,”

and at pl. M. fig. 5. figures the animal of Astarte sulcata with

two siphonal apertures; at p. 455, he further observes on this

species, ‘ the siphonal openings are quite sessile, and but slightly

separated from each other ;” and at p. 466, he states that the

animal of A. compressa has “ sessile siphonal orifices.” -

I was aware that Philippi (Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1839, 125,

copied Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 297) had described

the animal as like Cardita, with only a single anal opening, but

placed more faith in the latter description. I have however had

an opportunity of examining the animal of Aséarte striata from

Greenland, which appears to be the same as the A. compressa of

the ‘ British Mollusca,’ and find the description of Philippi cor-

(22 Dr. J, E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells.

rect, and that it has only a single opening like Crassatella and

Cardita. he family must, therefore, be removed to the order

Unionacea, between Carditide and Crassatellada, differing chiefly

from the latter in the external position of the cartilage.

Most probably, when the animal of Astarte is alive, the hinder

portion of the mantle near the anal aperture forms a siphon-like

aperture, as is the case in Crened/la and in many of the other

Lucinacea. It has been suggested that perhaps the leaves of the

mantle are united together and form a siphonal aperture when

the animal is alive, but separate when the specimen has been kept

in spirits ; however, there is not the slightest appearance of any

such union on the surface of the mantle, and it certamly is not

the case with Crenella, Mytilus, Unio, Anodon, and other animals

which are without a branchial siphon, and which have an imper-

fect siphonal aperture for the entrance of the water to the gills.

Carpitip#. This family may be thus divided :—

A. The elongate hinder cardinal tooth in left valve single, trigonal,

upper lamina of it rudimentary or quite wanting. Shell strongly

costate, cordate or ovate.

1. Venericardia. Shell short, cordate, hinder cardinal tooth

triangular. _V. australis, V. gar.

2. Cardita. Shell elongate, ovate, hinder cardinal tooth elon-

gate. C. antiquata.

B. The elongate hinder cardinal tooth in left valve double, both

lumine equally developed, elongate. Shell elongate, oblong.

3. Mytihcardia. Shell oblong, strongly costate ; front hinge-

tooth triangular, diverging; anterior lateral none. M. Jeson,

M. concamerata.

4. Lazaria. Shell oblong, strongly costate, front hinge-tooth

compressed, anterior lateral tooth distinct. L. Pectineus, L. ra-

diata.

5. Azarella. Shell roundish, compressed, dilated behind,

striated; front hinge-tooth elongate, compressed, similar and

parallel to hinder ; lateral teeth non’. A. semzorbiculata, A. gu-

bernaculum.

In Astartide I inserted “ Cypricardia sp. according to D’Or-

bigny ;” this was a mistake for Cardita sp. M. D’Orbigny both

describes and figures Cardita spurca, t. 82. f. 18, as having two

distinct siphonal apertures. I have not been able to see the

animal of this shell. M. Quoy describes the animal of Veneri-

cardia australis. Deshayes figured the animal of Cardita caly-

culata as having only a single anal siphonal opening, and this

is the case with the animal of the several species of Cardita

Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells. 23

I have examined; but if there is not some mistake in M.

D’Orbigny’s description and figure of Cardita spurca, it must be

a distinct genus; however, perhaps he has been misled by the

hinder part of the mantle being expanded behind during life,

so as to represent a second siphon, which is only a false appear-

ance.

Tellinide.—The genera Sanguinolaria and Soletellina, which

have been referred to Solenide; Fragilia and Capsa, arranged with

Veneride, should be referred to this family ; they have, like them,

two elongated separate siphons, with large distinct fan-shaped

retractile muscles, and the gills not produced into the siphons.

Anatinide.—In the May Number of the ‘Annals’ (p. 413),

I referred the genus Mytilimera of Conrad to the family Modio-

larcade with doubt. In an examination which I have been

enabled to make of typical specimens of Mytilimera Nuttalli, 1

think I have discovered the mark left by the shelly plate over the

large subinternal cartilage; and on comparing it with Anatina

cuneata, I have as little doubt as one can have from the exami-

nation of shells alone (especially in an imperfect condition), that

they belong to the same genus and the family dnatinde. As

Mytilimera was published before the Byssonia of Valenciennes,

it ought to be retained for these shells. They both have the

habit of livmg imbedded,—Byssonia cuneata in Ascidia, and

Mytilimera in sponges.

Mutelade.—In Mutela the lips are very large, semioval, at-

tached by the straight side without the free point existing in

Unio and Anodon.

Cardiade.—The gills are united together behind the body or

base of the foot.

Solenide. This family may be thus divided :-—

A. Cardinal teeth 1:1. Siphons produced, united ; siphonal muscles

moderate ; siphonal inflection deep, truncated.

1. Solen. Shell truncated in front ; umbo anterior; anterior

adductor muscle elongate, horizontal. S. marginatus.

2. Hypogella. Shell rounded at each end ; umbo subanterior ;

anterior adductor muscle round. H. ambigua, H. vaginata.

B. Cardinal teeth 2°3. Shell rounded at each end.

a. Siphons moderate, separate ; siphonal muscles small ; siphonal

inflection small, truncated.

3. Ensis. Siphons not produced, separate ; umbo anterior ;

anterior adductor muscle elongate, horizontal. #. Ensis.

24 Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells.

4. Pharella. Siphons shortly produced, separate ; umbo sub-

anterior ; anterior adductor muscle elongate, subtrigonal ; shell

subcylindrical. P. javanica, P. Michaudi, P. acutidens.

5. Pharus. Siphons produced, separate ; shell compressed ;

umbo subcentral ; anterior adductor muscle elongate, horizontal ;

umbonal ribs rudimentary. P. legumen.

6. Cultellus. Siphons ? anterior adductor muscle

rounded, hinder triangular; shell compressed; umbo subanterior.

C. lacieus.

b. Stphons much produced, large, united, covered with a thick

periostraca ; retractor siphonal muscles small ; stphonal in-

flection very small.

7. Cyrtodaria. Anterior adductor muscle elongate ; umbo sub-

posterior. C. glycimeris.

ce. Siphons elongate, with large fan-shaped retractor muscles ;

siphonal inflection deep, rounded.

* Siphons very large, united, covered with a hard periostraca.

Shell compressed. Hinge-teeth 3+ 3, compressed.

8. Srliqua.

*k Stphons large, united at the base, covered with a hard perios-

traca. Shell subcylindrical. Hinder teeth conic.

9. Glycimeris. 10. Adacna.

*K Siphuns very large, united at the base, upper part free, ringed.

11. Macha. Shell obliquely sulcated. MM. strigillatus.

12. Azor. Shell smooth. A. antiquatus.

KKK Siphons elongated, cylindrical.

13. Tagelus. * Umbo submedial; siphonal inflection very

deep, beyond the umbo. 7. viridieneus. T. Carabeus. F

* Novaculina. Umbo subposterior ; siphonal inflection deep,

not reaching the umbo. Y. Novaculina, India. T. Dombei,

Peru. 7’. fragilis, Europe. T. constrictus, China.

Elizia —Animal unknown. Shell suborbicular, oblong, equi-

valved, compressed, thin, covered with a hard shining periostraca;

umbo not prominent, subanterior. Cardinal teeth oblique, in

right valve two, hinder bifid elongate, in left valve three, central

bifid. Pallalimpression submarginal. Siphonal inflection deep,

oblong, rather contracted at the outer edge, descending from the

upper part of the hinder margin to the centre of the disk.

Elizia orbiculata= Solen orbiculatus, Gray i Wood Cat. Sup-

plement, t. 1. f. 4. '

Dr. J. KE. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells. 29

Lucinide—As our knowledge of the animals of Univalve

shells has increased, we have found that shells which have a

great resemblance to each other are formed by very different

animals, until it has become almost impossible to pronounce

with certainty on the genera of several Gasteropodous Mollusks,

unless we are in possession of the animal and operculum as

well as the shell. The same fact is every day forcing itself on

our notice with respect to the Bivalves. It is nearly impos-

sible to separate the Mutelade from the Uniones, the Modiolarce

from the Modiole, though the animals are very unhke.

All conchologists considered that the Lucinide were a very

natural group, yet we learn that Unguline of Daudin, which are

scarcely to be separated from them, except by their irregular out-

line from living in holes in rocks, have four gills and distinct labial

palpi, while the Lucine have only two gills and no labial palpi.

This appeared so improbable when 1 printed my paper in the

May Number of the ‘ Annals,’ that I placed a mark of doubt

after the description, but I have since had an opportunity of

verifying the accuracy of the observations.

One of the most striking instances occurs in the shell referred

to the genus Mysia, or Diplodonta. In the paper above referred

to I described the animal of a Philippine species of this genus,

which has two siphonal apertures and a lanceolate foot, and

referred it to the suborder Veneracea. M. Mittré im ‘Journ. de

Conchyliologie, 1850, t. 238, described and figured the animal

of a Brazilian species, which he calls Diplodonta Brasiliensis,

having only a single anal siphonal aperture and a cylindrical

foot like the Unguline ; and which, indeed, appears chiefly to

differ from that genus in the anal aperture bemg further from

the pedal one, and in the adductor muscle being roundish in-

stead of linear and elongate: the difference in form of this part

probably explains the relative position of these two apertures.

The examination of the animal of Ungulina, and M. Mittré’s

description and figure, show the necessity of forming for these

genera, as recommended by M. Mittré, a family, which may be

ealled Ungulinade, characterized by the single anal siphonal aper-

ture, and the presence of two pairs of gills and distinct labial

tentacles, which will contain the genera, 1. Ungulina, Lamk.,

2. Scacchia of Philippi, and 3. a new genus which may be called

Mirrrea, having Diplodonta Brasiliensis for its type. One —

of our English shells, Tellina rotundata, Montague, has been

referred to the genus Diplodonta, but I have not been able to ex-

amine its animal, and according to the description of Mr. Clark,

quoted by Messrs. Forbes and Hanley, it differs essentially from

any of the preceding: “the mantle pla, somewhat closed pos-

teriorly and anteriorly, but with a large opening for the foot in

26 Dr. J.E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells.

the centre of the ventral range: no siphonal process is to be

found, not even an orifice, except the pedal one.” —Brit. Moll.

i. 67. Should any of your readers have a specimen of this ani-

mal, I should be happy to have the opportunity of examining it ;

and also of the animals of any of our species of Lucine.

I may further remark, that the species of the genus Diplodonta

have been confused with the Cyrenelle, but the latter may be

known by a careful examination of the teeth of the hinge, and

the animal differs in having two siphons.

If M. Mittré’s description of the animal of Venus diaphana, on

which Recluz has formed his genus Fe/ania, is correct, it will also

have to be referred to the Ungulinide.

While on the subject, I may state, that the genus Mylhita of

D’Orbigny and Recluz, ‘Journ. de Conch.’ 1850, 88. t. 11.

f. 12-14, is the same as Pythina of Hinds, 1844, Voy. Sulph. 70,

and I believe established on the same species.

Etheriade.—The lips are very large, semioval, and attached by

the straight side without any free point, as in Mutela. There is in

fact no distinct muscular foot in the adult specimens. The body

containing the liver projects into the cavity of the mantle, and

has been described by Rang as a foot. The foot may be pre-

sent im the young state before the shell is attached.

Through the kindness of M. D’Orbigny, who has sent me the

original specimen of his genus Acostea, 1 am enabled to state

that it is identical with the Mudleria of Férussac and Sowerby,

and it appears to be the American form of this family.

Mytilade.—The pedal opening of Crenella is small, forming

the hinder half or third of the basal margin.

Ma tueacega should be divided into three families :—

1. Pinnade. Mislead by Rang (Manual Moll. 292), this

family was erroneously referred to Mytilacea. Anterior adductor

muscle well developed. Gills narrow, very much produced behind,

free from each other and the mantle, but fitting against a fold

on its inner surface. Rectum with a long tubular process at its

base. Vent medial. Pinna.

2. Pteriade. Anterior adductor muscle none. Gills narrow,

much produced behind, free from each other and the mantle, but

fitting against a fold on its inner surface. Rectum simple.

a. Avicula, Meleagris, Malleus, and Perna. (8. Crenatula.

In Avicula tle hinder pedal muscle is separate from and in

front of the large adductor muscle, with a separate scar; in Me-

leagrina it is close to and forms part of the large scar. There

are some other small sears, two in front and one behind the eir-

Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells. 27

cular central scar, formed by the ligameats of the muscles which

suspend the mantle and gills.

3. Vulselide. Anterior adductor muscle none. Gills narrow,

much produced behind, united together and to the inner surface

of the mantle, dividing the mantle-cavity into two parts. Ree-

tum simple. Vudsella.

In all these families the body forms a single mass, the tube

of the rectum passes over the back of the adductor muscle, the

vent being free and medial.

Osrreina. Add, vent medial, free ; the body forms a single cen-

tral mass.

Ostreide. Gulls united together and to the inner edge of the

mantle. Shell, hinge toothless.

Plicatulide. Gulls free behind and free from the mantle, sus-

pended from the body by a membrane. Shell, hinge with two

diverging cross-grooved cardinal teeth.

The genus Plicatula, which has been hitherto placed with

Spond ylus, should be removed to the tribe Ostreina and formed

into a separate family, as the animal has no appearance of any

foot, which is so peculiar in the former genus. The animal is

- very like Ostrea, has four equal suspended gills united together,

acute, and produced beyond the lower side of the adductor

muscle. Lips four, rather small, united together above the

rather large mouth. The shell is attached by the outer sur-

face of the left valve, and the hinge is furnished with two diver-

ging teeth, with the cartilages in a triangular pit between their

base.

Awnomiaina. foot distinct, small, truncated at the end ; ovaries

separated from the mass of the body and attached to the inner sur-

face_of the right leaf of the mantle. Vent nearer to or attached to

the right leaf of the mantle. Gills united together behind, suspended

by membranes to the inner side of the mantle.

Anomiade. Animal attached, rather distorted; foot on the

right side of the body, with a very large byssal pore at the base ;

byssus horny or stony, formed of parallel lamine, emitted

through a notch in the right valve of the shell. Pedal muscles

large, leaving two or three large scars on the left valve. The

byssus, or plug, is placed in exactly the same situation in the

animal as the beard or byssus of Mytilus, Pinna, &c., and the

animal is only rather distorted by being more closely attached to

the marine body than in those genera.

It shows that what is called the foot of the Arcs is im fact an

enlargement and production of this byssus-forming organ, while

the real foot is greatly reduced.

28 © Mr.J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions, Ciconomy,

Placentade. Animal free. Foot cylindrical, compressed, me-

dial, without any byssal pore. Vent attached to the right leaf of

the mantle. Pedal muscle small, leaving a small round scar be-

tween the diverging cardinal plates.

This family must be removed to the tribe of Anomiaina,

having a distmet foot. The mantle leaves free, margin closely

bearded. Foot when contracted in spirits compressed, elongate,

larger at the end, truncated, and with a deep linear cavity at

the end, apparently produced by the withdrawing of the tip,

probably cylindrical, and much elongated and produced when

alive. Gulls suspended, occupying the front and lower edge.

Anus tubular, conical, elongate at the hinder basal margin, at-

tached to the inner side of the right mantle leaf. Lips elongate,

attached by their hinder edge. Body surrounding the cardinal

ribs and cartilages.

Pectenide.—The foot of Pedum is elongate, cylindrical, clavate,

rather enlarged and rounded at the tip, without any appearance

of a byssal groove.

III.—Supplement to a Catalogue of British Spiders, including

remarks on their Structure, Functions, iconomy and Systematic

Arrangement. By Joun Buackwatt, F.L.S.

[Continued from vol. xi. p. 120.]

Tribe OCTONOCULINA.

Family Sauricip®.

Genus Salticus, Latr.

Arter Salticus notatus in the supplement to the catalogue

(Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. xi. p. 114)

add

Saiticus promptus.

Salticus promptus, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second

Series, vol. xui. p. 173.

In October 1853, an immature female of this species, which

is nearly allied to Salticus frontalis and Salticus reticulatus, was

received from the Rev. Hamlet Clark, who took it near North-

ampton in the autumn of the same year.

After Salticus reticulatus in the supplement to the catalogue

(Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x1. p. 114)

add

and Systematic Arrangement of British Spiders. 29

Salticus Jenynsii.

Salticus Jenynsii, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second

Series, vol. xii. p. 174.

This addition to our indigenous Saltici has been made through

the liberality of the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S., from

whom it was received in February 1853, together with numerous

specimens of spiders which had been captured in Cambridgeshire.

Family THomisip2.

Genus Thomisus, Walck.

After Thomisus cristaius in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. vil. p. 448) add

Thomisus audaz.

Xysticus audax, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 25 ;

Koch, Die Arachn. B. xii. p. 74. tab. 413. fig. 1005-1008.

Specimens of Thomisus audax, supplied by the Rev. Hamlet

Clark, were met with near Northampton and at Holme Fen,

Huntingdonshire, in the autumn of 1853. They were all females.

M. Walckenaer, regarding the Xysticus (Thomisus) audax of

M. Koch asa mere variety of Thomisus cristatus, has included it

among the synonyma of that species (Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt.

t.i. p.521), from which, however, it is undoubtedly distinct.

After Thomisus formosus in the catalogue (Annals and Mag.

of Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. vil. p. 450) add

Thomisus floricolens.

Thomisus floricolens, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. i. p. 532.

Thomisus dorsatus, Hahn, Die Arachn. B. i. p. 44. tab. 11. fig. 34;

Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 24; Koch, Die

Arachn. B. xii. p. 56. tab. 410. fig. 991, 992; Sund. Vet. Acad.

Handl. 1832, p. 221.

For this addition to our indigenous spiders I am indebted to

Mr. R. H. Meade, who transmitted to me, in December 1853,

adult males and immature females of Thomisus floricolens which

had been captured by Mr. Francis Walker in that and the pre-

ceding year at Piercefield, near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire.

Family Drasstpm.

Genus Drassus, Walck.

After Drassus cupreus in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. vii. p. 41) add

‘30 =©6©Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions, Giconomy,

Drassus lapidicolens.

Drassus lapidicola, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 18;

Koch, Die Arachn. B. vi. p. 28. tab. 188. (misnumbered 187 in

the text) fig. 450, 451.

Clubiona lapidicolens, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t.i. p. 598;

Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. ii. p. 479.

Clubiona lapidicola, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. p. 91; Sund.

Vet. Acad. Hand]. 1831, p. 139; Hahn, Die Arachn. B. ii. p. 9.

tab. 40. fig. 100.

An adult male of this species, which was first recorded as

British by Dr. Leach (see the Supplement to the 4th, 5th, and

6th editions of the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’ article Annulosa),

has been transmitted to me by the Rev. Hamlet Clark. An

examination of this specimen, which was found near Northampton

in the autumn of 1853, and had recently changed its integument,

has served to convince me that M. Koch has assigned to this

spider its appropriate situation in a systematic arrangement of

the Araneidea by transferring it from the genus Clubiona to that

of Drassus, as by the figure and disposition of its eyes and the

structure of its oral apparatus it evidently appertains to the

latter genus.

After Drassus nitens in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. vin. p. 42) add

Drassus propinquus.

Drassus propinguus, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second

Series, vol. xiii. p. 175.

Two adult males of Drassus propinquus, which is closely allied

to Drassus nitens, were captured in the spring of 1853; one

running on a public road near Llanrwst, and the other in a

window of the sitting-room at Oakland. In the summer of the

same year Mr. R. H. Meade took an adult male of this species

in Norfolk.

Genus Clubiona, Latr.

After Clubiona comta in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. vii. p. 44) add

Clubiona pallens.

Clubiona pallens, Koch, Die Arachn. B. vi. p. 19. tab. 185. fig. 443,

444.

Three adult females and an adult male of Clubiona pallens

were received in October 1853 from the Rev. Hamlet Clark,

who informs me that they were taken at Holme Fen, i Hun-

tingdonshire, about the middle of September in the same year.

I have not included the Clubiona pallens of M. Hahn (Die

and Systematic Arrangement of British Spiders. dl

Arachn. B. ii. p. 10. tab. 40. fig. 101) among the synonyma of

the above species, as there appears to be much uncertainty about

its identity. M. Walckenaer has added the Clubiona pallens of

M. Koch to the synonyma of Clubiona amarantha (Hist. Nat. des

Insect. Apt. t. il. p. 478), supposing it to be the latter species in

an immature state, for he remarks that “c’est une jeune que

M. Koch a décrite;” this, however, is a mistake, as it is a

smaller and perfectly distinct species, and M. Koch’s figure of

the male clearly represents an individual with the palpal organs

fully developed.

Genus Argyroneta, Latr.

Argyroneta aquatica. e

To the remarks on this species given in the catalogue (Annals

and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. vii. p. 97) the fol-

lowing particulars relative to its ceconomy may be added. In

May the female deposits from 80 to 100 spherical eggs of a

yellow colour, not agglutinated together, in a lenticular cocoon

of white silk of a compact texture measuring $rd of an inch in

diameter.

Family THeripiivaz.

Genus Theridion, Walck.

After Theridion nervosum in the catalogue (Annals and Mag.

of Nat. Hist, Second Series, vol. viii. p. 442) add

Theridion pictum.

Theridion pictum, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. ti. p. 304;

Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. iv. p. 489; Hahn, Die

Arachn. B. 1. p. 90. tab. 22. fig. 68.

Steatoda pictum, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 9.

Theridium pictum, Koch, Die Arachn. B. xi. p. 139. tab. 429.

fig. 1062, 1063.

Two adult females of this handsome Theridion were received

from the Rev. Hamlet Clark in October 1853. Both specimens

were captured at Richmond in the autumn of the same year by

Mr. George Guyon.

Family LinyPHiipa.

Genus Linyphia, Latr.

After Linyphia gracilis in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. ix. p. 19) add the following species.

Linyphia tenella.

Linyphia tenella, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second

Series, vol. xii. p. 177.

An adult female of this Linyphia was received from Mr. R,

' 32 Mry.J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions, Giconomy,

H. Meade in September, and an immature one from the Rey.

Hamlet Clark in October 1853.

Linyphia circumspecta.

Linyphia cireumspecta, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.

Second Series, vol. xin. p. 177.

In the autumn of 1853, males of this species, having the

palpal organs fully developed, were discovered among herbage

growing in woods about Oakland.

Linyphia flavipes.

Linyphia flavipes, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second

Series, vol. xii. p. 178.

Adult males of Linyphia flavipes were found among moss in

woods at Oakland in the summer of 1853.

Genus Neriéne, Blackw.

After Neriéne sulcata in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. ix. p. 271) add

Neriéne herbigrada.

Neriéne herbigrada, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second

Series, vol. xin. p. 179.

Early in October 1853 both sexes of Neriéne herbigrada, ina

mature state, were detected among coarse herbage and moss

growing in woods on the northern slope of Gallt y Rhyg. Like

Neriéne sulcata, this species makes a near approximation to the

spiders of the genus Walckenaéra.

Neriéne dubia.

The following fact may be added to the remarks on this species

in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series,

vol. ix. p. 272). An adult male was taken by Mr. Francis

Walker at Piercefield, in Monmouthshire, in the summer of

1853, and was transmitted to me by Mr. R. H. Meade.

Family Ep#iripa.

Genus Epéira, Walck.

After Epétra umbratica in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x. p. 182) add

Epéira agalena.

Epéira agalena, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt-t. ii. p. 36.

Epéira Sturmii, Hahn, Die Arachn, B. i. p. 12. tab. 3. fig. 8.

and Systematic Arrangement of British Spiders. 33

Atea agalena, Koch, Die Arachn. B. xi. p. 137. tab. 391. fig. 936-

938 (the specific name hyalina is incorrectly connected with the

numbers 936, 937 in the plate, but this error is rectified in the

text).

In the month of June this Epéira may be found in a state of

maturity on trees and bushes in the woods about Oakland.

After Hpéira ornata in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x. p. 185) add

Epéira ceropegia.

Epéira ceropegia, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. ii. p. 51.

Epéira sclopetaria, Hahn, Die Arachn. B. ii. p. 46. tab. 57. fig. 131.

Miranda ceropegia, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft,

p- 4; Koch, Die Arachn. B. v. p. 51. tab. 158. fig. 370.

Mr. Francis Walker captured an adult male of this species at

Piercefield in the autumn of 1853, and forwarded it to Mr. R.

H. Meade, from whom I received it in December in the same

year.

After Epéira inclinata in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x. p. 187) add

Epéira albimacula.

Zilla albimacula, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 5 ;

Koch, Die Arachn. B. vi. p. 144. tab. 215. fig. 534, 535.

In December 1853 an adult male of this species was received

from Mr. R. H. Meade, which had been taken by Mr. F. Walker

at Piercefield in the summer of the same year.

M. Walckenaer has placed the Zilla (Epéira) albimacula of

M. Koch among the synonyma of Kpéira agalena (Hist. Nat.

des Insect. Apt. t. 11. p. 37); but the males of these species

differ in the design formed by the distribution of their colours,

in the armature of their anterior legs, and in the structure of

their palpal organs.

After Epéira tubulosa in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x. p. 249) add

Epéira calva.

Epéira calva, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series,

vol. x. p. 99.

An immature female of this interesting Epéira was received in

October 1853 from the Rev. Hamlet Clark, who states that it

was taken in Leicestershire.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 3

84 Dr. T. Withanis on the Mechanism of Aquatic

1V.—On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the

Structure of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals.

By Tuomas Witu1ams, M.D. Lond., Licentiate of the Royal

College of Physicians, formerly Demonstrator on Structural

Anatomy at Guy’s Hospital, and now of Swansea.

[| With two Plates. |

[Continued from vol. xii. p. 312.]

Mollusca.

Tue Annulose and Arthropodal series conduct hy a separate

path across that wide space which divides the Echinodermal from

the Vertebrate animal. The Molluscan subkingdom traverses

the same distance by a divergent route which begins at the

Bryozoon and terminates at the Cephalopod. These grand inver-

tebrate chains of beings unite mutually below at the Echinoderm

and Bryozoon, and superiorly at the basilar link of the verte-

brated series. The zootomist, having studied serially the arti-

culate families, is constrained to return to the base of the inver-

tebrate cone, in order to seize the point of departure of that

independent road along which the molluscan families attain the

summit. Between these groups there exist few poimts of mter-

communication. Reciprocal affinities nowhere attract attention.

The Mollusca constitute a separate study: in varieties of form

they are equalled by no other division of invertebrate animals ;

in number of species they exceed almost the limit of arithmetic ;

in diversities of structure they bewilder the anatomist ; in

modes of life discordantly diverse, they perplex the student of

their habits, And yet a deeper insight into the plan of the

molluscan organism enables the earnest thinker to seize the clue

of natural union which obtains between the countless members

of this variegated group.

Provided with a heart to circulate the blood, a distinct aliment-

ary system, a nervous system, and its satellitic organs of sense, a

muscle-apparatus, viscera of complex organization, and a blood-

fluid fibrinized and eorpusculated, they offer to the physiologist

a problem by no means easy of solution.

Of this composite machinery the respiratory function is the

primary moving power. Without it nothing can go on. It is

momentarily important. What provisions are made to insure

its full and adequate performance? The terrestrial Gasteropods

excluded, all mollusks respire on the aquatic principle. They are

tenants of the water. The organs of breathing in bulk and com-

plexity of structure far surpass those dedicated to other offices.

The bulk of blood, which at any given time is included within

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 35

the limits of the branchial organ, is relatively considerable.

Measured by the complex magnitude of the branchiz, the inert

oyster is a physiological paradox. It is hard thence to believe

that muscularity and respiration are directly proportional. The

force generated by the act of breathing is expended in other

directions. Cephalopods and air-breathing Gasteropods apart,

the branchial structures of every known mollusk are abun-

dantly ciliated. In this anatomical particular they contrast

strikingly with those of the Crustacea. Both are breathers of

water. In one only are cilia provided. The question impli-

cating the reason of natural things lies far too deep to be

fathomed by a mechanical explanation. In both the purpose to

be accomplished is the same; in both the means employed are

intimately similar, and yet in one instance vibratile cilia are con-

stituently admitted into the mechanism, in the other they are

rejected. Biochemistry at a future ewra will elucidate these

mysteries.

The peripheric circulation in the Mollusca is lacunar rather

than capillary. This capital fact was first established by Milne-

Edwards* and Valenciennes ¢ : these authors describe the blood

as effused into the parenchyma of the body. It returns into

the veins without the intervention of capillaries. The details

upon which rest these general postulates will be afterwards

stated. In the anatomical character of the peripheric passages,

in the small proportion of fibrine in the blood, the circulating

system and the blood of the Mollusca resemble obviously the

chylaqueous fluid and its contaiming system.

In all mollusks, separate, specially constructed organs are con-

secrated to the function of breathing. Even the Brachiopoda

are not exceptional to this rule; they are pallio-branchiate.

The universal presence of complexly formed and profusely mul-

tiplied respiratory organs attests the extreme value of the ofiice

which they are designed to fulfill.

The ultimate vessels of the branchiz in all mollusks, those of

Brachiopods and Tunicates { excepted, occur in the form of straight

* Obsérv.et Expé. sur laCireul. chez les Mollusques.—Comptes Rendus,

1845, xx. p. 261.

+ Nouv. Obsérv. sur la constit. des appareils de la Cireul. chez les Mol-

lusques.—Ibid. p. 750. See also Ann. des Se. Nat. 1845, in. p. 259.

+ T regret that no recent opportunity has occurred to me to test the

validity of the anatomical principle expressed in the text. For the present I

assume that the ultimate blood-channels in the branchiz of the Tunicate

mollusks reticulate (Pl. I. fig. 2 & fig. 4); that is, that the blood which

moves at one moment in one direction courses at the next m another at

right angles with the former, the whole being on the same plane, and the

circumscribed stigmata being water-passages. This assumption conforms

with the description of all observers from the time of Savigny.

: 3x

36 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

parallel non-communicating tubes, of regular outline and uniform

diameter in the Lamellibranchiata, of irregular contour and vari-

able diameter in the Cephalophora. In ail, the ultimate blood-

channel constitutes one, single, independent tube from one end of

its course to the other. Returning upon itself it does not lose its

individuality : it nowhere inosculates : it reticulates in no single

instance. One foundational law of structure is thus proved to

preside over the disposition of the ultimate elements of the

branchial organs in all the mollusks above the Tunicata. Already

the thoughtful eye descries the bright, continuous thread of

‘principle’ linking remotely separated and disjointed varieties

into the golden chain of consistent unity. Another generality no

less remarkable remains to be propounded. The branchize of ad/

Tunicate and all Lamellibranchiate, and a considerable majority

of the Gasteropod mollusks are penetrated by the aérating water.

The branchia is a sieve through which the water filters. This

act of branchial filtration is a fundamental fact in the history of

all the inferior mollusks. The area which is circumscribed by

the mantle, at least in all Tunicate and Lamellibranchiate mol-

lusks, is divided more or less completely into two distinct com-

partments, the one pallial and external, the other imternal and

visceral (Pl. I. fig. 7, c & d; Pl. II. figs. 9 & 13). The bran-

chiz constitute cribriform plice developed on the divisional

membrane (fig. 7, e, e, e, e) by which these two compartments (c,d)

are separated.

These leading propositions outlined in brief, will suffice to

prepare the mind for the right conception of those interesting

details which it is now proposed to consider.

The limits of these papers render it impossible to refer in ea'-

tenso to those anatomic specialties by which the branchial organs

of every species are more or less differentially characterized.

Those only can be selected for study which involve a typical

principle. Rules, not exceptions, it must be the aim of these

investigations to define.

Tunicata.

Tunicate mollusks stand immediately above the Bryozoon.

From the latter they are distinguished in the possession of a

heart. The movement of the blood is due exclusively to the

contractions of this central organ. The heart is systemic and

tubular. In many genera it is valveless, as indicated by alterna-

tions of direction in the blood’s course. No definitely parieted

vessels occur on any segment of the peripheric arc of the circu-

latory system. To this rule the branchial forms an exception.

The branchial “ bars ” are, however, not ordinary vessels. They

are peculiarly formed, They are not analogous to those of the

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 37

vertebrated animals. They are bounded by skilfully configurated

cartilages, as will be afterwards explained. In the Tunicata, as

in other Acephala, the blood leaving the open ends of the arteries

passes into the interstices—/acune—of the parenchyma of the

body ; thence it is taken up by the open mouths of the venous

radicles. The solids are thus literally soaked in the fluids. The

former are everywhere bathed by the latter. It may be affirmed

in a general sense, that the higher the serial position of the ani-

mal, the smaller the breadth of the ultimate blood-currents, and

conversely. The degree of subdivision which occurs in the

blood-streams represents a numeric measure of the nutritive

actions. The area comprehended by the mantle is divisible in

the Tunicata, as in Acephala, into two sub-areas. The one is

either bounded, lined, or traversed by the branchiz, and contains

the mouth ; the other embraces the viscera and includes the anal

outlet. This fact is absolute. That space into which the mouth

opens is homologous with the pallial extra-branchial or general

cavity of the mantle in the Acephala. That in which the intes-

tine terminates coincides with the intra-branchial or visceral en-

closure in all bivalves. An exact conception of these primary

divisions of the body in the inferior mollusk is really indispen-

sable to the perfect understanding of those respiratory and ali-

mentary currents of the water, the direction and relative bearing

of which have perplexed anatomists from the epoch of Cuvier to

the era of Messrs. Hancock and Clark.

In the ceconomy of the Tunicate and Acephalan mollusks this

principle is inviolable—that nothing, neither water nor aliment-

ary particles, is conducted to the mouth, which has passed

through the gills. Water charged with carbonic acid is never

swallowed.

The feculent pellets are never and cannot be mixed with the

alimentary. The current which conveys fresh water to the

branchiz is convective also of food to the mouth. The stream

which carries away the effete product of respiration bears off the

feculent rejectamenta.

There are then, in truth, but ¢wo chief ceconomic water move-

ments in these animals—that which enters the pallial or extra-

branchial space, and that which leaves the visceral and intra-

branchial inclosure. This is simple and intelligible. It resem-

bles a ray of hight shining amidst a darkness which for half a

century has brooded over a vexed and perplexing controversy.

It is impossible to perform one step in advance towards a more

satisfactory knowledge of this subject, unless the meaning of the

“siphons” (PI. I. fig. 1, a, 4) be first brought into the light of clear

definition. They are commonly distinguished into the branchial

and the anal. The terms in the ordinary signification would indi-

38 De. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

cate the first as the orifice of ingress, and the last as that of egress.

This, however, is not the acceptation in which they are used by

authors of great celebrity. Mr. Rupert Jones* observes: ‘ The

position of the animal is such, that of the two orifices the

branchial is always the highest ; the entrance into the branchial

sac being generally placed at or near the superior extremity of

the body, and the cesopkageal opening at the base of the branchial

sac having an upward direction.” This is directly opposed to

the aecmiae of M. G. P. Deshayest, who says—‘‘ Whether

connected or not, the superior siphon is always characterized as

the wnal, the inferior as the branchial siphon.” Of course the

comparative “ superior” must mean that which is nearest to the

hinge or dorsum ; “inferior,” that which is next to the venter, the

antipodal point to the hinge. The branchial siphon of Mr. K.

Jones is therefore correspondent with the anal of M. Deshayes.

The expression of Cuvier—“ deux ouvertures , 8eparees, Pune

pour la respiration, Pautre pour les exerémens,” &c.—suggests

the idea that one tube, the branchial, is devoted exclusively to

respiration ; that is, that through the same tube the inspiratory

and expiratory currents concerned in breathimg take place.

Dr. George Johnston observes : “ The water is mbibed through

a branchial siphon. The effete fluid is expelled again through

another or anal siphon {.” The branchial siphon of other authors

is the longest or superior, and is distinguished as that which

emits the refuse water which has traversed the branchie. The

branchial siphon in the sense in which it 1s used by Mr. Garner $

is synonymous with the inhalent tube, and the anal with the ex-

halent. In this acceptation the terms are also used by Forbes

and Hanley||, by Alder and Hancock4, and by Mr. Clark

in his excellent controversial papers against Mr. Hancock in the

‘Annals. Dr. J. EK. Gray attaches to these words a similar

meaning, calling the inhalent ‘the lower’ siphon, and the exha-

lent ‘ the upper’**.

The “branchial” siphon of the most esteemed anthors then

is that tubular extension (Pl. I. fig. 7, a, a’) of the mantle

by which the surrounding element is admitted into the “ bran-

_ a ee article Tunicata.—Cyclop. Anat. Phys.

See the article Conchifera—Cyclop. Anat. Phys.

See his recent excellent work, entitled ‘ Introduction to Conchology,”

p- 37 5. Van Voorst, 1850.

§ Transactions of Zoological Society, vol. n. p. 91.

|| British Mollusea, vol. 1.

| See their valuable papers on the Branchial Currents m Pholas and

Mya, Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Oct. and Nov. 1851.

** See lus original and instructive papers in recent Numbers of the

« Annals,’ on “* A Revision of the Arrangement of the Families of Bivalve

Shells,” &e.

+++

Respiration in Invertebrate Anmals. 39

chial vault ” (Clark), “ branchial chamber ” (Hancock), or “ pal-

lial cavity’ (Ferbes and Hanley) (d). It is indifferently de-

scribed as the “ lower,” “ shorter,” “inferior” or “ventral.” It

is the further of the two siphons from the hinge. Its office is

“‘ inspiratory,” “ inhalent,” “branchial” or “ prehensile.”

The “anal” siphon (fig. 7, 6, b') is variously defined as the

“upper,” “ superior,” “ dorsal,” “ exhalent,” ‘ excrementitial,”

“expiratory,” “longer,” &c.

That is called “inhalent ” which the most conscientious and

truth-loving observers declare does not inhale: that the ‘ ex-

halent ” to which an emissive office is strenuously denied! There

are but two cavities (fig. 7, c, d) and only two siphons (fig. 6, a,0).

Of the latter one communicates with one cavity, the other with

the other. The boundaries of these eavities severally are con-

spicuously and unequivocally marked. They are as distinctly

defined as the siphons with which they respectively communicate.

But though clearly bounded they are not mdependent. Fluid

introduced into the one will unquestionably pass into the other*,

Neither the process by which food is brought to the mouth,

nor that of respiration, could be understood before the fact was

discovered of the permeability of the branchial lamelle. To Dr.

Sharpey should be ascribed the merit which belongs to the first

discovery of this point +; to Mr. Hancock that of its full and com-

* At a subsequent stage of these inquiries, this general statement will be

supported by abundant evidence.—See Acephala.

+ Dr. Sharpey’s description cannot be misconstrued. ‘‘On removing one

of the valves, turnmg down the cloak, and putting moistened charcoal

powder on the surface of the gills, the finer part of the powder soon dis-

appears, having penetrated through the interstices of the bars or vessels

into the space between the two layers of the gills. On arriving there, a

part is often forced out again from under the border of the unattached

layer at the base of the gill, but most of it is conveyed rapidly backwards

between the two layers, and is carried out at the excretory orifice with the

general current . .. The coarser particles remain outside the gill and are

slowly carried to its edge, followmg the direction of the bars: they then

advance along the edge of the gill towards the fore part of the animal. It

thus appears that the water first passes in between the lobes of the mantle

to the external surface of the gills; it is then forced into the space enclosed

between their layers, from whence it is driven out at the excretory orifice,

to which the enclosed spaces of all the gills lead. As this process continues

to go on after the shell and lobe of one side are removed, it is evident that

the motion of the water must he mainly produced by the cilia of the gills. .

By their agency the fluid is forced mto the space within the gills, and this

operation taking place over the whole extent of the gills, must by its con-

centrated etfect give rise to a powerful issuing stream at the excretory

orifice, of which the entering stream seems to be a necessary result.’”’—Art.

Cii1a: Cyclop. Anat. & Phys. In this most able summary, three principles

are lucidly affirmed :—I1st. That the water concerned in breathing perme-

ates the branchial lamelle, and thus traverses the partition which divides

40 Dr. T. Williams ov the Mechanism of Aquatic

plete demonstration. Mr. Clark*, however, embraces still the

doctrine which contends for the non-communicating independ-

ence of the siphons and of the cavities of which they are the ex-

ternal continuations. In this respect, his conclusions are directly

opposed to the results of the author’s observations. That the cavi-

ties recently so clearly defined by Mr. Hancock are by structure

and office distinct, will be afterwards irrefragably proved. This

division of the pallial enclosure into two leading sub-areas con-

stitutes a fundamental feature in the ceconomy of the Tunicate

and Lamellibranchiate mollusks. It suggests a natural process

of thought by which the siphonic actions are interpreted infal-

libly. It will be subsequently proved, that that siphon which is

said by Messrs. Alder and Hancock to give ingress to the water,

is really no more branchial than that by which the fluid makes its

egress. Both bear to the branchiz the same anatomical relation.

It were as correct to designate the opercular orifice in the fish as

the “anal,” and the mouth as the “ branchial,” as to apply such

terms to the siphons of the Tunicata and Acephala. Such de-

signations misinform. They express either what is not true, or

what is only partially true. The “ branchial” siphon is as much

oral or prehensile as branchial. The “ exhalent ” as much anal

as expiratory. :

It is quite established that two distinct offices devolve upon

each siphon. ‘The one is designed to take in water for the pur-

pose of breathing, and alimentary particles for the purposes of

food; the other emits at once the products of the respiratory

and digestive processes. One name as applied to either will not

express the double function. Let the name therefore be drawn

the pallial from the anal chamber. 2ndiy. That by this act of sieving the

food, the aliment is separated from the water and impelled by ciliary action

towards the free margins of the gills and along the groove formed expressly

for this purpose on this margin, and finally borne in the direction of the

mouth. And 3rdly. The distinctness of the inhalent from the exhalent

current; while Dr. Sharpey speaks plainly upon the point that the ez-

current is set in motion exclusively by the branchial cilia. It is extraordi-

nary that, in asserting claims to originality upon these very points, in

papers published ten years afterwards, so careful and honest a student as

Mr. Hancock should have permitted this accessible and celebrated article

of Dr. Sharpey to elude his literary search! I rejoice rather than lament

over Mr. Hancock’s “sin of omission.”” Confirmation, enriched by nume-

rous valuable origmal details, proceeding from so truthful an observer,

must prove of immense service to the cause of science; but, palmam qui

meruit. To widen the bounds of knowledge is the highest gratification

which belongs to the true man of science. This is his most valued title of

nobility. To withhold from the labourer his just reward, is to perpetrate a

criminal offence against science.

* On the Pholadidee.— Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. Nov. 1850.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 4]

from structure rather than from office. In these papers accordingly

that siphon which opens into the pallial or ventral chamber will

be distinguished as the eatra-branchial siphon; that leading

from the dorsal, visceral or anal cavity, as the intra-branchial

siphon. These distinctives express only the anatomical position

of these tubes relatively to the branchial partition by which they

are separated. They involve no hypotheses. They attribute no

function. They cannot misguide.

In the Tunicata the extra-branchial siphon (Pl. I. fig. 1, a;

2, a; 3, a) leads into the pharyngeal cavity (b), which is homo-

logous with the ventral or pallial chamber of the Acephala. It

is the longer and higher of the two. All fluid which reaches the

mouth (fig. 3, 6), seated at the lower boundary of this cavity,

must gain the pharyngeal chamber through the extra-branchial

siphon. All alimentary substances rejected by the mouth, that

is, those material particles not swallowed, are sent out again by

a convulsive jerk of the cavity through the same siphon. It is

essential to distinguish the substances thus refused by the mouth

from the true excrementitious pellets which are always ejected

by the tntra-branchial siphon.

The mode in which the surrounding element enters the pallial

space has distracted controvertists, and divided them in belief.

By Mr. Hancock, representing one class of observers, it is main-

tamed that the inhalent current is set in motion exclusively by

the action of vibratile cilia seated on the linmg membrane of

the siphon itself. By Mr. Clark this explanation is denied.

The former naturalist rests his theory upon the alleged demon-

stration of cilia on the internal surface of the inhalent siphon,

the latter upon observation of the currents. The inquiries

of Mr. Hancock were confined to the Lamellibranchiate mol-

lusks. But it may be stated with confidence, that what is true

of this class will apply to the case of the Tunicata. The dispute

is really easy of adjustment. The adjustment here, however,

fails in this sense, that the demonstration which is negative is

less persuasive than that which is positive. To prove a denial is

less easy than to substantiate an affirmation. The microscope

leaves it beyond doubt, that the internal lining membrane of the

extra-branchial siphon of the Tunicate is not provided with a

vibratile epithelium. They sometimes exist on the tentacles at

the base of the siphon, but most certainly not on the walls of

the latter. The water which enters this siphon is assuredly

therefore not drawn in by the agency of cilia within the siphon.

Further observations are required to determine the exact

course of the currents excited by the cilia distributed over the

branchial bars. It is not proved that the water enters the

siphon in virtue of the cilia situated at the latter point. It

42 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

enters at the moment of the diastole of the pharyngeal chamber.

Such a movement operates suctorially upon the flud within the

sphere of its influence. Having entered the cavity, the water is

whirled in a thousand definite directions by the branchial cilia.

Every particle of material substance contained is rolled into

minute pellets and borne in the direction of the mouth. If it

be palatable, it is swallowed; if not, it is emitted forcibly again

by the same siphon. The water which falls under the influence

of the proper branchial cilia is impelled in such manner and

direction, and in myriad invisible currents, that it permeates the

branchial membrane (fig. 1, 5; fig. 2, b) by means of the meshes

circumscribed by the vascular bars. The passage of the water

through these meshes does not occur in direct currents, but in

streams which pass up and down the sides of the meshes several

times before they finally reach the intra-branchial or visceral

cavity—therefrom to be rejected by the intra-branchial or anal

siphon, so that the aérating element by this contrivance is

detained for some time in contact with the blood-channel.

The egressing current saturated with carbonic acid escapes from

this latter siphon in a continuous stream,—such a stream as an

uninterruptedly acting force alone could determine. The mi-

croscope was accordingly applied to the examination of the lining

of this siphon, anticipating the immediate detection of vigorous

ciliary action. Ascidians, Cynthians, and Clavellinans, submitted

to careful inspection, disproved the anticipation. In none, by

any device, could cilia be demonstrated on the inner wall of this

anal or intra-branchial siphon. ‘The current, therefore, which

escapes at its orifice is not set in motion by any force within the

limit of the siphon itself, but rather by that which is placed at a

distance—the branchial ciliary action. ‘The space interposed

between the branchial membrane and the mantle in Tunicates

forms a part of the intra-branchial or visceral cavity. It is filled

with refuse water, rendered poisonous by carbonic acid. This

effete fluid enacts no further part in the organism. It is finally

rejected.

In the Tunicata then the two siphons are continuous through

the branchial stigmata. The mass of water which always more

or less fully distends the body of the animal, observes only one

normal or regular movement, viz. that tending from the extra-

branchial siphon (fig. 1, a) in the direction of the intra-bran-

chial (2). The irregular and occasional currents are propelled in

the reverse directions. The pharyngeal cavity may muscularly

contract, and now and then emit pure unrespired water, and un-

used alimentary substances held by this water in suspension. If

such discretionary power did not exist, the indiscriminating mouth

would swallow every solid substance borne mechanically ito the

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 4%

pharyngeal chamber by the water drawn in by the extra-branchial

siphon. Nature’s machinery would then, indeed, wear the dis-

graceful impress of faultiness.

In the Ascidians the branchiz completely line the walls of the

pallial chamber. In figure the chamber varies ; it is oblong in

some species, oval and rectangular in others. ‘The branchial

membrane in Ascidia, Phallusia, &c. forms a plane unfolded sheet,

adapting itself to the cavity of the mantle; in Cynthia, Boltenia,

&e. it is longitudinally plicated (fig. 5) and disposed in deep and

regular folds. The ultimate vessels (d) are arranged rectangu-

larly. The circumscribed ‘ stigmata’ (c) are parallelogrammic in

figure. These perforations lead from the pharyngeal into the

“thoracic” chamber of Milne-Edwards. Why it should be

called ‘ thoracic’ is difficult to understand. As already defined,

it is really the visceral, intra-branchial or cloacal cavity. The bran-

chial vessels in the Ascidians are arranged in two planes (fig. 4).

In Cynthia ampulla the meshes are very irregular and almost

inextricable, some of the minute vessels having apparently a

spiral arrangement. In Chelyosoma, Eschricht figures a similar

vermicular disposition of the branchial vessels. The branchial

membrane of Cynthia presents large longitudinal vessels. They

are crossed by others of equal size. Large meshes (d) are thus

formed. Smaller vessels (6) lymg on a different plane form by

crossing smaller stigmata. In Ascidia and Chelyosoma, the angles

of the meshes of the branchial membrane bear papille (c) more or

less prominent. In Cynthia they do not exist. These papillose

processes are hollow recesses. They are by-receptacles for the

nutritive fluid. In size the branchial vessels vary in different

genera. In Cynthia they are large, in Ascidia they are minute,

in Cystingia they are indistinct. The branchial plicee converge at

the mouth whenever they exist.

By Carus and Van Beneden a lateral opening in the respi-

ratory cavity has been indicated, by which the water passes di-

reetly from the branchial sae into the cloaca (fig. 1, 0; fig. 3, e).

This aperture corresponds with the open fissure which im many

species of Acephalans exists between the attached border of the

branchiz and the base of the foot. It is a safety-valve, as will

be hereafter explained.

In Clavellinide, Botryllide, in the genera Pyrosoma, Pelonaia

and Salpa, such is the structure of the branchiz, that the water

readily traverses the respiratory stigmata, and passes from the

extra-branchial into the intra-branchial chambers.

In all genera the branchial membrane is attached by means

of threads and vessels externally to the mantle.

The branchie in the Clavellinide exist in form of a band

stretching across the cavity of the mantle, and dividing the pha-

A, Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

ryngeal from the cloacal chamber. In ultimate structure the

branchie of this genus differ from those of the Ascidians: in

place of presenting on each side simple strie furnished with

vibratile cilia, as in the Salpians, they bear right and left a series

of filiform appendages directed horizontally towards the ventral

side of the respiratory cavity, where they are fixed on each side

of the middle sulcus, and during their passage across are united

together by a number of other slender vertical filaments. From

this disposition of parts there results a kind of trellis-work,

which fills up all the pharyngeal portion of the branchial cham-

ber, permitting no communication between the latter and the

cloaca except through the meshes of its network, which are

bordered all around with vibratile cilia*.

The branchial sac of the Botryllide is like that of the Clavel-

linide: it is similarly organized. The branchial spiracles are

variable in number. [It is in general only slightly folded. The

respiratory sac in Botryllus lies horizontally, and has only nine

rows of stigmata, grouped into threes by the longitudinal folds.

The angles of the branchial network are marked with papille in

Distoma and Diazona.

The branchie in Pyrosoma line the internal tunic of the mantle.

They are orally disposed. They consist of numerous vessels

or channels anastomosing with each other at right angles.

“ Nothing is more curious,” says Milne-Edwards, “than the

respiratory apparatus of these animals, when the vibratile cilia

with which each of the stigmata is furnished are simultaneously

effecting their vorticiform movements with rapidity and perfect

bance yt.”

In ee the gill is constructed of a flattened tube, stretched

on a vertical plane obliquely across the central or branchial

cavity of the body. It is composed of a double membrane formed

by a fold of the internal tunic or mantle. It partitions the bran-

chial chamber into two portions—the pharyngeal and cloacal.

The circulatory systems of the Ascidians resemble that of the

Bryozoa. If the heart were removed, it would be a chylaqueous

system. It is transitional between the Polypes and the Mollusks.

Van Beneden compares the Ascidian to a digestive canal sus-

pended in the midst of an external envelope surrounded by a

fluid moving in the open spacious perintestinal space. It is

only in the branchial network and tentacies that it can be said to

be contained in vessels.

Mr. Gosse gives an exact description of the living circulation

in Perophora Listeri (fig. 3). Speaking of the blood-globules, he

* See article Tunicata.—Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.

+ Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 2nd ser. tom. xii. p. 375 (1835).

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 45

observes, ‘‘ They do not appear to pass into a defined system of

vessels, ... . but find their way through the interstices of the

various organs in the various cavities of the body. . . . They pro-

ceed by jerks ; some find their way into the space between the

breathing surfaces, and slip in between the rows of oral rings

(stigmata), and wind along down between the rings in irregular

courses *,””

In the Ascidiadz and Clavellinide the centres of this system

consist of two trunks, a dorsal and a ventral, the capillary

system of the branchiz being intermediate. Lister’s famed ob-

servations on this subject should be consulted+. The descrip-

tive details afterwards to be presented on the subject of the

respiratory and circulatory systems of the Acephalans, will illus-

trate many points of interest in the structure of the correspond-

ing systems of the Tunicata. The peripheric channels of the

blood are analogous in the two classes. The ultimate structure,

though not the arrangement of the vessels of the branchiz, is

also similar. The nutritive fluids, morphotically distinctive; are

chemically identical in the two classes.

Acephala.

In the Terebratulide there exists no express apparatus for

breathing. With the Craniade they are therefore placed at the

inferior limit of the Lamellibranchiate series. Prof. Owen has

shown that the mantle in the Brachiopods is more vascular than

in those orders of bivalves in which gills exist. Dr. Carpenter f

has lately shown that the external layer of the mantle in Tere-

bratula and certain other Brachiopoda, sends out cecal tubes

through the shell. They are respiratory in office, and the exact

counterpart of those membranous processes which the author of

these papers has described in the Echinodermata as projecting

up above the external surface of the body. The cecal character

of these parts establishes a community of type between the fluid

system of the Brachiopods and the chylaqueous system as de-

fined by the author. The arms are long, richly ciliated tubes.

In these tubes the blood moves in a single channel by flux and

reflux. This incident also in the history of the fluids allies

these inferior mollusks with those animals in which a chylaqueous

system only exists. This latter fluid never undergoes an orbital

movement: it fluctuates to and fro. The ultimate respects in

which the vessels in the mantle of the Brachiopods differ from

* See his mteresting work, ‘A Naturalist’s Rambles on the Devonshire

Coast,’ p. 245.

T+ Phil. Trans. 1834.

t Proceedings of the Royal Society, April 6, 1854.

46 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

those of the mantle of the higher Acephala ; and what differen-

tiation of these parts was required to enable an ordinary structure

to discharge a special office, has been shown by Dr. Carpenter.

The organs of breathing are well developed in all the Lamel-

libranchiate Acephalans. Their vascular system is elaborately

multiplied. They are capable of containing a considerable amount

of blood. If aquatic were not less intense than atmospheric re-

spiration, the aggregate area of the surface exposed by the gills

of mollusks in general would insure a measure of effect sufficient

to raise these animals high in the scale of physiological activity.

Surface is not the only factor to be counted in determining the

dynamic value of the respiratory office. The composition of the

blood demands a numeric place in the calculation. If the fluid

occupying the vessels were identical in density with the exterior

element, no interchange of gases could proceed. A difference

in the specific densities of the gases held in solution by fluids of

identical gravities would constitute a condition in virtue of which

the gases would reciprocally move independently of the fluids.

The less the proportion of fibrine in the blood, other things being

equal, the lower is its absorptive capacity for gases. The blood

of mollusks is less charged with fibrine than that of the higher

Articulata. In the former the floating corpuscles are less highly

organized. They are strikingly less filled with solid contents.

They are smaller and yet not more numerous. The physical

conditions as regards the fluids then are not favourable in the

Mollusea to a high rate of respiration. .

Cuvier first defined the bivalve moilusks under the title of

Acephala testacea, By Lamarck they were constituted into a

separate class under the name of Conchifera. M. de Blainville

marshalled them under the order Acephalophora lamellibran-

chiata. The anatomical definition of Cuvier presents clearly

the chief points of structure :—“ Leur corps qui renferme le foie

et les viscéres est placé entre les deux lames du manteau; en

avant, toujours entre ces lames, sont les quatre feuillets bran-

chiaux striés reguliérement en travers par les vaisseaux ; la bouche

est & une extremité, ’anus a autre, le coeur du cdté du dos; le

pied, lorsqu’il existe, est attaché entre les quatre branchies*.””

The mantle of the mollusk is a grand feature of the organism.

Its horizontal lobes embrace, its vertical process, on which the

branchie are evolved structurally and functionally, bisects, the

whole body. The mantle at once invests and secretes the shell,

and forms the very basis of the body of the animal. It is com-

posed of muscles, nerves, fibres, and vessels. It is lined inter-

nally in all cases with vibratile epithelium. A straight line,

* Regne Animal, vol. sur les Mollusques, p. 182.

Respiration in Inwertebrate Animals. 47

carried from the anterior to the posterior extremity of the shell

in any Acephalan, divides the mantle and the body into two very

distinct and dissimilar halves. On one side lie the branchiz and

extra-branchial, ventral, or oral chamber (PI. II. fig. 18) ; on the

other are disposed the viscera, the intra-branchial or dorsal

cavity; with the latter the exhalent or intra-branchial siphon

is necessarily and invariably connected ; in this dorsal compart-

ment, also, the anal orifice terminates. That cavity (b) which

lies on the ventral (the side opposed to the hinge) or right side

of the hypothetical line, whether the ventral borders of the

mantle be open or closed, siphonal or asiphonal, is always and

necessarily filled with pure water. In this chamber the branchize

(Pl. I. fig. 7, a, b) whatever be their number or position, figure

or size, freely float; it is here always that the oral orifice

(fig. 18, a) opens; it is at once a reservoir of pure water for

breathing and pure material for food. All varieties centre in

the unity of this idea—all specific aberrations are reducible

to this basilar type. Specific diversities arise more frequently

from variations in the number, size, siphonal or non-siphonal

character of the openings communicating with this (oral or

extra-branchial) chamber (PI. I. fig. 6, 6, 6; fig. 7, ¢, d), than

from those which occur in the siphonal processes of the itra-

branchial or anal cavity (fig. 15, e). . Mr. Clark * and Dr. J. E.

Gray + are the most recent and distinguished conchologists

who have attempted intelligently to found a classification of

the Conchifera on the basis of the varieties which occur in the

pallial orifices. Dr. Gray groups the whole class under two

primary designations—the Stphonophora and Asiphonophora—

which are again subclassified into orders, genera, and species.

In the Pholadide, Myade, Gastrochenide, and Solenidz, the

ventral borders of the mantle are united, and the siphonal tubes

are long and more or less distinct. The mantle is also closed

in the Corbulide and Anatinide, but the siphons are short. In

the Tellinide the mantle is open, while the tubes are prolonged.

An open mantle coexists with short siphons in Cardiadz, Vene-

ride, Mactride, and Donacide. An open mantle is co-present

with sessile tubes in Cycladide, Kelliad, Lucinide, Cyprinide,

Unionide, and Arcade. In Mytilide, Ostreadz, Pectinide, and

Anomiadz, the whole gape of the mantle is one undistinguished

capacious orifice. Guided by the rule that pure water must in

some manner or other, with adequate freedom, be admitted into

the oral or extra-branchial cavity, it is quite obvious that the

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., June 1851. “On the Classification of the

Marine and Testaceous Mollusca.”

+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., May 1854.

48 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

larger the ventral or common opening of the mantle, the /ess is

the necessity for the lower or extra-branchial siphon. _ If, on the

contrary, the leaves of the mantle be fused at their borders all

round, a well-developed siphon is absolutely required. This cavity

must have a free and ready communication with the exterior.

If this communication is not established in one mode, it must in

another. A siphon is a necessary provision if the mantle be

closed ; if open, it is only supplementary. In the former case,

everything fluid and solid which enters the pallial cavity must

pass through the extra-brauchial siphon. It can gain the cham-

ber through no other source. In the latter, the siphon is only

incidentally and occasionally used. The great bulk of water

drawn into the cavity rushes in through the ventral and pedal

openings. That which, alike solid and fluid, is returned wn-

used from this cavity, is indiscriminately jerked out by muscular

action through any of the mantual openings. If the pellet of

sand be situated near the opening of the siphon of this cavity,

at the moment when it receives the impulse of ejectment, it escapes

through the inhalent or extra-branchial siphon (PI. I. fig. 6, 0).

If, on the contrary, it be placed at the other end of the chamber,

it will be driven out either through the ventral or pedal gape.

The orifice and direction in which refused jets of water take

place from this cavity are contingent upon the position which

the rejected portion may have previously occupied, in the cavity.

Upon this important point neither Mr. Clark nor Mr. Hancock

are clearly informed. Mr. Clark is correct in stating that the

ingress of the water ito the great mantual or extra-branchial

cavity is due, not to the invisible agency of vibratile epithelium

on the lining membrane of the-siphon, but to the diastolic sepa-

ration of the valves. Mr. Hancock is undoubtedly in error in

stating that the water entering this cavity is drawn im by cilia

of the siphon. The microscope disproves completely the asser-

tion that the internal lining membrane of the inhalent or extra-

branchial siphon is the scene of ciliated epithelium. In no

single instance of the numerous siphonal species examined by

the author, could cilia be discovered in this situation. If at

this place cilia do not exist, it admits of no dispute, that the

occasional inward-tending current which reaches the cavity

through this siphon cannot be due to the instrumentality of

cilia, at this poimt at least. Mr. Clark is unquestionably wrong

in supposing that, because now and then the inhalent or extra-

branchial siphon, and the ventral and pedal openings of the mantle

emit a jet of water and solid pellets, this cavity is therefore inde-

pendent, that the “siphons therefore do not communicate,” and

that therefore the ingress and egress of the water designed for

respiration take place through the’ same orifices. Every one of

Respiration in Invertebrate Anunals. 49

these inferences are non-sequiturs. Mr. Hancock is accurate in

affirming that a// the water which enters this cavity from with-

out travels exclusively along the inhalent or extra-branchial

siphon, and never, under any circumstance, through either the

ventral or pedal openings*. 4// the water which is admitted

into the extra-branchial cavity is not respired; in other language,

does not pass through the branchiz into the dorsal or intra-

branchial chamber (fig. 6, f); nor is aé/ the solid substance, which

it may perchance contain, seized by the mouth and swallowed.

The act of the passage of the true respiratory water from one

chamber into the other is an involuntary act. The volume of

the fluid and the rate of its motion are definite, and proportional

to the organic wants of the animal. The movement by which

water is drawn from without into the extra-branchial reservoir is

voluntary +, and dependent in frequency of recurrence upon the

quantity of food which it may bear in suspension, and upon the

degree of its purity. The body of water which at any given

moment the extra-branchial cavity may contain, is sieved by the

cilia, which are distributed over the external: surfaces of the

branchie. These cilia, as will be subsequently explained, raise

a broad current (see arrows on the branchte in figs. 6, 8, & 9),

very visible to the naked eye, which always and ‘systematically

sets m the direction of the free or unattached borders of the

branchial lamelle. These currents begin at the attached or

proximal edges of all the lamelle.

They observe the same directions on the under as on the

upper surface of each lamella (see arrows on the branchiz in

fig. 7°). They are true food-searching currents. The pellets

formed by their agency, having attained the free margin,

* In correcting what earnest and faithful observation and research have

convinced me to be “ errors,” I deal in no flattery or hypocritical circumlo-

cution. Ide not honour great men the less because a repetition of their

procedures has assured me ‘that in some special particulars they may have

approved themselves false. It is because their genius has first indicated

a main highway through a tangled wilderness, that faithful observers

amongst their successors are enabled to mark the pomts whereat the sin

of mmor deviations from the straight course may have been committed.

It is im this spirit that I have ventured to criticise the acute labours of Mr.

Hancock and Mr. Clark. It is in this spirit, I trust, that my criticism will

be received. The brief limits of these papers, in which resu/ts rather than

prozesses are embodied, preclude all reference to details, dissections, ex-

periments, observations on the living animals, injections, &e. Once for

all, I affirm, that no assertion has been rashly projected in these papers

which has not been conscientiously submitted to the test of fact, and

weighed in the balance of practical trial.

+ The imfluence of the cilia of the branchial lamelle upon this in-

gressing current has never yet been clearly perceived. Such influence is

undoubtedly exerted.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 4

50 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

are carried in the direction of the mouth and tried and. tasted

by the palpi (fig. 6, 7,7). Those which are acceptable are

swallowed; those which are unpalatable are carried completely

out of the cavity indifferently by any one of its openings, lest

they should again pass over the branchie. So incomparably ad-

justed are the cilia which render the gills a wondrous spectacle

of infinitesimal currents, so precise and fore-ordained are the

directions in which they move, that the act which sieves the

food from the water drives also that water from the recipient

into the refuse chamber (fig. 6, f; Pl. IL. fig. 12, h), through the

meshes circumscribed by the branchial vessels. Tas stage of the

respiratory process is strictly involuntary. It is governed by in-

violable organic laws, not volitional caprice. It is to the mollusk

what the insensible involuntary physical exos- and endosmose of

gases in the ultimate air-cells of the lungs are to the mammal.

It differs physically and physiologically from the act in which

water is drawn into the cavity of the mantle,-as strikingly as the

thoracic movements of respiration in Man differ from the ulti-

mate process. Thus, whatever may be the number, size, or

prominence of the openings* of the mantle, the functions of the

great ventral chamber rermain unchanged. They are and must

be in every instance, under all general mutations of character,

those of a reservoir from which food is drawn to the mouth and

the aérating element to the branchie.

The second great cavity (Pl. I. fig. 6, f; fig. 7, ec. Pl. U1.

fig. 8, d; fig. 9, e; fig. 10, c, c'; fig. 12, h), lying to the left,

dorsal, or “the hinge” side of the imaginary hne formerly

defined, remains now to be described. It is limited ventradly

by the branchize, dorsadly by the hinge, and posteriorly by the

ex-current siphon.

The anal chamber does not in all genera communicate openly

and directly with the mterlamellar passages. The former really

arises in the latter, when only one of the proximal borders of the

branchial lamelle is attached to the side of the visceral mass ;

the grooves, running antero-posteriorly and parallel with the

length of the gill, and situated between its proximal borders and

* I would beg here to refer the student to the interesting papers of Mr.

Hancock, im the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ during the

years 1852 and 1853, for an account of the collateral openings which in some

genera occur in the mantle. In Chamostrea albida, in addition to the nor-

mal siphonal orifices and pedal and ventral gapes, he describes another of

minute size, which is situated under the lower siphon. A similar aperture

exists in other Lamellibranchiates. Mr. Hancock has observed it in Lutraria,

Cochlodesma, Panopea and Myochama and Prof. Owen in Pholadomya. It

is clear from the explanation given in the text, that these secondary aper-

tures are really secondary in meaning. They do not in the least affect the

physiological character of the cavity.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 51

the visceral mass, although open, form really the commencement

of the anal chamber.

Mytilus and Pecten exemplify the type of this condition

(Pl. I. fig. 7%). The outer plate (c, c') of each lamella is free or

unattached at its proximal margin. This latter is thick and

strong. It is composed of the large afferent and efferent trunks.

In Mytilus and Pecten it is not frmged by a slender membrane

as in Cardium and Pholas (fig. 6, e, f) and Mya, &c. The

gutter or channel (fig. 77, f, f) formed by the attached or lower

lamella of the superior gill and the free or unattached or upper

plate, opens consequently into the extra-branchial or pallial

cavity in a direct manner. The water flowing along this groove

(fig. 10, c) does not however return into this latter cavity,

except under extraordinary circumstances. It is conducted in a

rapid course, impelled by the branchial cilia, in the direction of

the cloaca (fig. 10, e). The groove formed at the proximal

margins of the inferior, or as it is falsely called, the supplemental

gill (fig. 72, c’), opens in like manner into the pallial cavity, but

on the under surface. It receives the expiratory currents of the

lower gill, and conveys them in form of a strong single current

towards the exhalent siphon. In Cardium (PI. LI. fig. 9), Pholas

(fig. 7), Mya, Solen, Cochlodesma, and Pholadomya, the two

plates of each branchial lamella on both sides are attached, the

upper to the side of the body and foot, the lower to the mantle.

The groove bounded by the plates of the branchial lamellz is

divided off, therefore, in these genera by a continuous mem-

brane (fig. 9 f) from the pallial chamber. Mr. Hancock says,

that in the siphonal families this membrane forms a complete

partition between the pallial and anal cavities, since it extends

continuously from the anterior to the posterior extremity of the

upper plate. The author’s observations have convinced him,

that, while in Cardium, Pholas, Solen, and Mya this membrane

stretches posteriorly over the cloaca in a hood- or tongue-like

form, it leaves between its edge and the side of the foot a

fissural opening through which the two cavities freely communi-

cate. The difference, then, between the siphonal and non-

siphonal families as respects the parts concerned in respiration,

may be defined as consisting in the degree in which the intra-

branchial grooves are anatomically isolated from the open space

of the pallial cavity.

Such points are non-essential distinctions: while they denote

the existence of trifling structural varieties, they mvolve no

diversities in the methods of action. Whether partially open or

completely closed, the grooves (fig. 6, f) running horizontally at

the proximal borders of the gills and between their component

plates, convey the exhalent current received from the gills im the

52 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

direction of the cloaca. When there exist two separate bran-

chial lamellee on either side, there exist two grooves; when one,

only one.

The anal chamber, then, should be defined as beginning in

these intra-branchial grooves, but remotely or primarily in the

inter-lamellar water-passages of Mr. Hancock. The mode in

which this chamber communicates with the water-tubes between

the branchial lamell is thus described by Mr. Hancock :—

«..the anal chamber (in Pholas crispata) was laid open, and its

ventral wall was seen to exhibit four longitudinal rows of large

orifices. These four rows of orifices, already well known to

anatomists, correspond to the attached margins of the four gill-

plates, which hang from the roof or dorsal membrane of the

branchial chamber ; this membrane being the ventral wall of the

anal chamber, the membrane, in fact, which divides the chambers.

These orifices lead into wide tubes, which pass between the two

laminze forming each gill-plate. These mter-branchial! tubes he

contiguous and parallel to each other, and extend the full width

of the gill, being bifid within its free margm. Thus it is

evident that the tubes within the gill-plates communicate freely

with the anal chamber*.” This description is exact, but it

should be thus qualified: In those siphonal families in which

the gills are united posteriorly (this is the ease im Unio, Ano-

donta, Mactra, Cardium, Isocardia, Lutraria) and prolonged into

the inhalent siphon, the anal chamber is considerably more

capacious than in those in which the branchial plates of opposite

sides are distinct and ununited posteriorly (this condition is

observed in Pecten, Avicula, Arca, Pectunculus, and Pinna), or

in those in which the siphons are suppressed. In ail cases, the

anal chamber commences anteriorly (fig. 10, c) m grooves more

or less extended, formed, as already defined, between the plates

of the branchial lamellz and the side of the visceral mass and foot.

These grooves terminate and pour their contents in a conti-

nuous stream into the anal chamber—a cloacal cavity common

tothe branchize and intestine. In all cases then the interlamellar

water-passages open throughout the anterior half or third of the

gills into the water-grooves at their bases, posteriorly directly

into the cloaca or anal chamber. This definition, so positive,

precludes all misconception. It leaves the cavities functionally

distinct in all genera, though in some structurally continuous. It

solves the problem of the Molluscan organism. The ingress and

egress of the alimentary and respiratory elements are so ordered,

that the ceconomy of the conchiferous animal, hidden in a coat

of mail, is rendered unequivocally clear to the understanding.

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Nov. 1851.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 53

All the interlaminar tubes, lately so fully described by Mr.

Hancock, pour a constant current into this cavity, with which

all the intra-branchial spaces openly communicate. Into this

chamber, at different points in different genera, the imtestine

terminates (Pl. I]. fig. 12, 6). It receives the excrementitioz»

products at once of the intestinal and branchial systems.

This simple detinition was first established in all its details by

the researches of Mr. Hancock. It is essentially founded upon

the permeability of the branchial laminz, first proved by Dr.

Sharpey. The correctness of this description is denied in the

most strenuous manner by Mr. Clark. It is impossible not

to admire the ardent eloquence, and sagacious inventiveness of

argument with which Mr. Clark defends his own views. The

duty of the critic, however, is sacred. The solemn sentence of

“error”? must be pronounced alike over many of his “ facts ””

and not a few of his “ inferences.”

Mr. Clark is indeed right im asserting, that frequently a

momentary in-current occurs through the ew#-current siphon.

This accidental incident is utterly unimportant. The normal,

systematic, and necessary direction of the current in this (the

dorsal, upper, anal ex-current, ex-halent or in¢ra-branchial)

siphon is centrifugal. In all Acephalans, whether siphonal or

non-siphonal, everything that passes through this siphon has

an outward tendency. The centripetal movement is irregular

and accidental. The stream bears far more strikingly a con-

tinuous character than that ingressing at the ventral or extra-

branchial orifices. The uninterruptedness of this current was

supposed by Mr. Hancock to be due to the action of cia lnmg

the interior of the siphon. The statement of this distinguished

naturalist in this particular is imdisputably erroneous. This

siphon, like the in-current one, is not lined with vibratile epithe-

lium, The stream by which it is traversed is not excited by any

force within its own limits.

In denying the existence of cilia within this siphon, Mr. Clark

is on the side of truth. But the current emanating from the

excurrent-siphon is continuous in character. It always goes on

except when the orifice is closed by voluntary muscular action.

The continuousness of this ex-current 1s due, not to cilia

within the interior of the siphon, but to those at a distance, on

the branchial bars. Ad/ the cilia distributed over the internal

surfaces of the branchial lamme (those facing the mterlaminar

tubes) excite currents tending in the direction of the dorsal or

intra-branchial cavity and_that of the ex-current siphon. The

proofs of this interesting fact will be afterwards given *.

* See a subsequent paper “On the Minute Structure of the Branchie.”’

54 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

The character of this exhalent current is not the same in all

genera. In Cardium it is much more regular than in Pholas,

&e. It occurs quite as distinctly in the Asiphonophora as in

the Siphonal classes. It 1s with this current that the rejecta-

menta escape.

The evidence upon which the doctrine of the independence of

this cavity from the ventral is maintained, will be adduced when

speaking of the minute structure of the branchiz.

If the view supported by Mr. Hancock be true, that the

dorsal or intra-branchial cavity is separated from the ventral or

extra-branchial by a partitional membrane which is permeable

nowhere but at the branchial stigmata, it follows that every-

thing which passes from one chamber into the other, either in a

progressive or regressive direction, must percolate through these

minute foramina. The author’s dissections, however, render it

probable that a fissural opening (fig. 6, e) at either base of the

foot exists in some of the siphonal genera, if not in others. It is

seated at the base of the branchial lamelle and the junction of

the vertical partition of the mantle with each superior gill, and

opens directly from the zntra- into the evtra-branchial chambers.

The office of this fissure is that of a safety-valve.

When the outlet of the ex-current siphon is closed by sphine-

teric contraction, the intra-branchial cavity being rapidly more

and more filled in virtue of the continuousness of the branchial

ciliary action, the surplus fluid escapes through the lateral

fissures back again into the ventral or extra-branchial chamber,

again to pass through the branchial foramina, propelled by cilia.

It is by thus repeatedly filtermg the same water through the

branchiz that those bivalves, such as the Mussels, sustain life,

though abstracted for a considerable time from their native

element. The fissure in question is detectable only from the

inside of either chamber, not from the outside view of the whole

mantle, even after the separation of the animal by spirits of

wine from its shell. If the exit of the water from this intra-

branchial enclosure be due to the force exerted by the lamellar

cilia, it follows that the egressing current should be equally as

vigorous and marked in the non-siphonal as in the siphonal

genera. ‘The presence of the ex-current siphon does not affect

the real branchial action of respiration. As a tubular extension

of the cavity, it enables the contents of the latter to be delivered

at a greater distance away from the body. This is its real office.

Thus the sphere in which the animal lives is maintained in

purity. The in-current which occasionally occurs through eo

dorsal or intra-branchial siphon should be regarded really as

momentary accident, as an irregular reversal of a normal pe

Water thus drawn into the cavity of the ex-current siphon can

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 55

act no part either in the alimentary or respiratory process. It

eannot reach the mouth without permeating the branchial fora-

mina. It can do this only by overcoming the opposing force

exerted by the branchial cilia. If the water which occasionally

enters at the exhalent siphon were normally designed for respi-

ration, like that flowing in at the inhalent siphon, as supposed

by Mr. Clark, the former could not reach the branchial lamelle

without meeting and mingling with the counter impure current

driven by cilia, coming from the branchi. The principle is ab-

solute in the mechanism of the respiratory process in all Tuni-

cate and Lamellibranchiate mollusks, that the aérating element

must pass through the gill. The function of breathing cannot be

accomplished if the water merely passes in a stream whose

direction is parallel with the planes of the gill-lamine. The

ultimate and true respiratory currents are those which permeate

the lamine at right angles to their planes. It results of logical

necessity, therefore, that if the water did not traverse the bran-

chial partition (Pl. II. fig. 12, g) which divides the extra- from

the intra-branchial chambers, the great and imperious function

of respiration could not be accomplished.

The preceding postulates, supported only by theoretical rea-

soning, will on a future occasion be rendered incontrovertible

by the demonstrations of minute anatomy.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. anp Il.

Puate I.

Fig. 1. Clavellina lepadiformis (after Mine-Edwards): 4, mouth and in-

halent funnel; 4, large horizontal blood-channels, running regu-

larly between the vertical ones q; p, the intervascular stigmata

through which the water passes from the branchial chamber into

the cloacal cavity (0), whose outlet is at (4) the exhalent or anal

siphon; f, rectum terminating in the cloaca; n, mantle ; m, test,

the intermediate space being filled with blood.

Fig. 2. Pyrosoma giganteum (after Milne-Edwards) : a, mouth; 4, bran-

chial sac ; ¢, cesophagus ; d, stomach; e, intestine ; f, liver ; g, anus ;

k, ovary; 1, ganglion.

Fig. 3. Perophora Listeri: a, branchial siphon; 8, tentacles at its base;

c, large blood-channels in which the blood-corpuscles are seen ;

d, branchial, e, cloacal chamber; d, exhalent siphon; e, space,

tunnelled with spacious blood-channels, between the test and

mantle.

Fig. 4. Plan of vessels in the branchial band of Salpa maxima: a, large

vessels constituting a separate layer; 6, smaller; ec, cacal pro-

cesses from the vessels and filled with blood, and communicating

with their internal channel; d, d, water meshes: fig. 4 a, a sepa-

rate bar, showing cilia, and bore.

Fig. 5. One of the branchial folds of Cynthia microcosmus: a, ¢, water

meshes between the blood-channel; 8, d, the attached borders ;

e, free border ; d, transverse blood-channels.

Fig. 6. Branchial system of Pholas dactylus ; a, intva-branchial or exhalent

On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration.

siphon ; 6, 6, extra-branchial or inhalent siphon; 4, 6, 6, pallial or

extra-branchial cavity ; ¢, external or inferior branchial lamella ;

d, internal or superior lamella; e, membrane tying the attached

border of the superior branchial lamella to the side of the foot and

visceral mass, roofing the intra-branchial or anal chamber (f ); the

arrows (g) show the currents descending from the branchiz into

the anal chamber, and thence out through the excurrent siphon,

under the membranous roof (f) connecting the branchiz of the

two sides; h, mouth; 7,7, palpi. The arrows indicate the direc-

tion of the currents.

Fig. 7. is a transverse ideal section of the preceding figure. It exhibits the

relation of the water-currents and cavities: a, incurrent siphon,

leading (at a!) into the extra-branchial or pallial chamber d, d ;

b, exeurrent siphon leading out of (at 6’) the mtra-branchial or

anal chamber c; e, e, e, e, branchial lamelle.

Fig. 77. One-half of Mytilus (fig. 10) in transverse section, showing the

mode in which the branchial lamelle are attached to the man-

tle h, h; a, b, branchial lamellee of one side ; c, c', free proximal

border of respectively the upper lamella of the internal gill-plate,

and the lower of the external. The attached lamelle (d, d') of each

gill-plate are joined by a membrane at e; g, shows the continuous

membrane which at the proximal borders connects the branchial

bars, so that at this point no water can permeate the lamella ;

J, f', denote the spacious grooves which receive the water from

the interlamellar tubes and convey it to the cloaca. The arrows

mark the direction of the currents.

Puate II.

Fig. 8. Vertical view of the common Cockle, showing the relation of the

branchial system to the siphons and cavities: a, excurrent siphon

leading out of the anal cavity (a!) surrounding the visceral mass (7);

b, meurrent siphon conducting (at 6’) mto the extra-branchial

cavity (c); e, arrows marking the excurrent currents coming from

the branchiz ; g, palpi; f, mouth.

Fig, 9. Ideal transverse section of the former figure : a, excurrent siphon

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

leading out of the anal cavity (e) at a’; 6, incurrent ditto opening

at 0’ into the general cavity of the mantle (c, c) at 6'; d, d, bran-

chi; f, the line of the mantle uniting the branchial lamelle

together. The arrows show the order and tendencies of the water-

currents.

Vertical view of Mytilus, exhibiting the systems of respiratory and

alimentary water-currents: a, mouth; 7, i, palps; 4, extra-bran-

chial or pallial cavity; c, two longitudinal halves of the rectum,

terminating in the excurrent channel in the mantle ; e, e & f, sur-

rounded by the grooves (c) indicated by the arrows which convey

the expiratory water from the branchi in the direction of the

cloaca; d, d', branchial lamellee ; 7, 7, arrows showing the direction

of the currents along the distal or free border of the gills which

convey food to the mouth.

Ideal transverse section of the former—compare with fig. 77. Pl. I.

It is designed only in outline plan to display the relative anatomy

of the extra-branchial (4), the branchiz and pallial membrane (d),

and the intra-branchial or anal chamber (c); a, openings of the

mantle.

Oyster: a, mouth between the palpi; 6, anus, emerging out of

the visceral mass; c, upper half of the mantle arching over the

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 57

branchiz ; d, lower mantle ; e, e', e", arrows showing currents en-

tering the cavity of the mantle (/); the arrow (/) also marks the

food-besring currents tending towards the mouth; h, intra-bran-

chial or anal cavity; g is that portion of the pallial membrane

which stretches from the proximal berder of the wpper branchial

lamella to the side of the visceral mass, thus shutting in com-

pletely the intra-branchial cavity; 7, the excurrent.

Fig. 13. Ideal transverse section of the preceding figure : a, mouth ; b, ge-

neral cavity of the mantle; c, openings between the valves

(f, f') of the mantle; g, membrane uniting the branchiz with the

mantle, and dividing the pallial chamber (c) from the intra-bran-

chial cavity (e); d, the anus.

[To be continued. ]

V.—Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an

eight years’ residence in the Island. By Encar Leovoip

Layarp, F.Z.S., C.M.E.S. &e.

[Continued from vol. xiii. p. 453.]

205. Treron sicineta, Jerd. Bata-goya, Cing. Patchy-praa,

Mal., and Groéne-duyven of the Dutch descendants; lit.

Green Dove.

Very abundant in the south of the island and in the mountain

zone, where it is mingled with T. Malabarica vel T. Pompadoura,

Gmel. Towards the extreme north it is seldom met with, though

I have killed a few specimens in the Patchellepally. In the

neighbourhood of Pt. Pedro I never saw it, its place being filled

by the larger T. chlorigaster, Blyth.

This Pigeon never alights on the ground, but seeks its food,

which consists of berries and small fruits, on the highest trees ;

it always feeds in flocks, and vast numbers are killed in the

southern and western provinces by noticing what trees are in

fruit, and watching at their foot for the birds which are conti-

nually going and coming. It however feeds so silently and

moves so seldom, that it requires much skill to detect a single

bird out of a flock of fifty or sixty, and on the least alarm, which

is communicated from one to another by a plaintive whistle,

they all dart off the tree as if by magic; frequently, on firing at

a bird which has exposed itself, I have brought down seven or

eight others which I could not see.

It forms a nest in the month of May, of sticks, with a very

slight lining of roots, &e. in the fork of a tree, and deposits two

shining white eggs. Axis 14 lines; diam. 10 lines.

206. TRERON CHLORIGASTER, Blyth.

Confined to the extreme north of the island, where it is very

58 Mr. KE. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

abundant, feeding on the fruit of the banian tree. It is migra-

tory, only appearing in the fruit season, and returning again

to the coast of India.

The Tamuls and Cingalese apply the name of “ patchy-praa”

(Green Dove) and “ bata-goya”’ imdiscriminately to all our Tre-

rons. The words pra@ and goya are synonymous and used for

all pigeons.

207. Treron Marasarica ? Jerdon.

Var. Pompadoura, Gmel. (Brown’s Il. Pl. 19, 20.)

I procured this species in abundance in the mountain zone, at

the top of the Baleaddua Pass, and at Ratnapoora. It feeds on

berries, and flies in large flocks. Our Ceylon race is slightly dif-

ferent from the true 7. Malabarica, and I believe it to be the

origin of Brown’s wretched figures (plates 19 & 20). My

lamented friend Mr. Strickland was satisfied with this view of

the case, and intended offering some remarks on these plates

and several others which represent Ceylonese birds, but which

have hitherto not been satisfactorily identified. I regret that L

have not a copy of the work to refer to, and detail as fully as my

memory serves me, the conclusions to which we came upon most

of them.

208. CarporpHaGa PUSILLA, Blyth, J. A. S. xvii. Mahavilla-

goya, Cing. Matabatagoya of the Cingalese to the north of

Kandy. Berg Duyven, Dutch ; lit. Hill Dove.

Mr. Blyth separates this species and those from the Nilgiris

from Tickell’s Columba sylvatica, under the name of C. pusilla.

Mr. Strickland was inclined to agree with him, but wished for a

larger series of specimens than those I had by me for compa-

rison.

Our birds extend northward and southward into the low

country, but their great haunt is certainly the mountain zone,

though, from Dr. Kelaart’s observations, it does not appear to

have been seen ‘in very high lands,” and the Mahavillagoya of

Nuwera Elia is another species, C. Torringtoni, Kelaart.

They are very migratory, only appearing with the ripe fruit of

the banian, teak, and other trees, on which they feed: at this

time they congregate in hundreds in places where previously not

a specimen could be procured.

209. ALsocomus puNniceEus, Tickell. Neeyang cobeya, Cing. ;

lit. Season Pigeon, from its being essentially migratorial.

This bird is but rarely a visitant of our island ; I believe it ap-

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 59

pears during the fruiting of the cinnainon trees ; the natives all

assure me of this; but there is another bird called Kurrundoo

cobeya, 1. e. Cinnamon Dove, which 1s confused with it, or else

this has two names. A relative of mine, however, who was formerly

in charge of the Government Cinnamon Department, informs me

that many years ago, when the south of the island was not so

much cultivated as at present, there used to arrive at the fruiting

season, flocks of a small pigeon which fed on the cinnamon, and

which he could not identify with any I showed him; he called

them Kurrundoo cobeya, and said he had not seen any of late

years. I have sometimes thought this might prove to be Treron

aromatica, Gmel.

210. Carropuaca Torrinetonit, Kelaart. Mahavillagoya of

the Ceylonese Mountaineers, apud Kelaart.

Mr. Blyth is disposed to consider this as only a variety of

C. Elphinstonei, Sykes, of the Nilgiris, but Mr. Strickland at

once pronounced it to be distinct ; if so, Dr. Kelaart’s name will

stand.

Not having seen it alive, I must refer to his ‘ Prodromus Faun

Zeylanice ’ for particulars of its habits ; he says (page 108)—“ It

is an arboreal species seen only in pairs ; flies high and in long

sweeps: their nests are formed on lofty trees.”

211. CoLuMBA INTERMEDIA, Strickland.

This species is extremely local, being confined to two places,

“ Pigeon Island,” off Trincomalie, and a rock off the southern

coast near Barberryn. From these it, of course, makes incursions

into the interior, and [ have heard of specimens being shot at

Vavonia-Vlancolom, on the great central road, about fifty miles

from Trincomalie.

212. Turrur risorius, Linn. Cally-praa, Mal.; from their

frequenting the Euphorbia hedges called “ Cally ” by the

Malabars. Ringel Duyven of the Dutch descendants.

Extremely abundant in the northern province, and indeed

wherever the country is favourable to the growth of the Huphorbia

antiquorum. It breeds in the spring, fabricating a loose, careless

nest, of small twigs, in the Euphorbia trees, im which it deposits

two oval and shining white eggs. Axis 14 lines ; diam. 11 lines.

While residing in the north, or in my jungle trips, I found them

a wholesome and pleasing addition to my table, frequently kall-

ing from twenty to thirty of them and of 7. Suwratensis in two

or three hours.

60 My. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

213. Turrur Surarensis, Lath. Mani-prada, Mal.; lit. Bead-

Dove, from the bead-like spots on the neck. Cobeya and

Allo» cobeya, Cing.

Equally abundant with the preceding in the same localities,

but found also in the central province and wooded portions of

the southern districts. In its nidification it is similar, and the

eges are only distinguishable by their size, having an axis of

12 lines and a diam. of 9 lines.

The flight of both these pigeons during the love season is

most elegant and graceful ; the male bird will at such times soar

away from the branch on which his “ meck-eyed” partner is

reposing to a considerable altitude, rising almost perpendicularly

and clapping his wings together over his back, then opening

them and spreading his tail he sails downward in decreasing

circles and graceful curves to the object of his affections, who

greets him with the tenderest and blandest cooings, and while

he struts and pouts before her caresses his head and wings with

her bill. The fervour of their love being assuaged, away they

both soar in the fulness of their joy, to descend again in undu-

lating curves, crossing and recrossing each other with the most

easy and graceful flight, to the more sober and matter-of-fact

work of collecting building materials for the nest.

214. Turtur HUMILIs, Temm.

The fertile portion of the Pt. Pedro district is separated from

the neighbouring divisions of Malagam, Jaffna, and Chavaga-

cherry, by a plain of several miles in breadth, in the centre of

which, during most parts of the year, is an expanse of shallow

brackish water ; in the hot season this mostly dries up, in some

places leaving a rich deposit of native salt (from the sale of which

a large portion of the revenues of the northern province is de-

rived) ; in others not so impregnated with the saline particles and

sooner dry, the natives raise crops of paddy and other grain; in

others (reclaimed by embanking) topes of palmirahs have been

planted. Far away from other cultivation, and in the centre of

the plain between Tunale and Warenny, stands one of these topes,

numbering perhaps two dozen palms and margosas ; a few banian

trees, planted doubtless by some vagrant dove, have taken root

and circled some of them in their deadly embrace; a well of

brackish water, a ruined temple, and a native hut, complete the

picture of this “ oasis in the desert.” Government duty led me

one morning to this spot soon after the waters had subsided :

part of my walk had been over parched mud sparkling with saline

incrustations, which rendered the glare almost insupportable ; at

one place the people with me had carried me through water wp

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylun. 61

to their arm-pits, and for the last two miles I had trudged along

over the remains of paddy-fields, now dry and dusty, under the

burning sun, without a tree or a bush to shelter me; my dogs

trailed their tails and drooped their heads, with straining eyes

and outstretched tongues, and even the ordinarily garrulous

natives were silent, oppressed by the intolerable heat; the

mirage deluded us with its pictures of limpid water and tall

trees, my spirits almost sank, and I thought I never should reach

the trees before us in the distance. How willingly would I, had

I been a litigant for that miserable tope, have resigned it,

rather than have taken the trouble to walk to it ! Suddenly—the

first living thing I had seen for hours—a pigeon darted past us

in full fhght towards the tope; I hardly cared to look at it with

my half-closed aching eyes, but its pink-coloured back and small

size at once roused me—it was something new! O, how eagerly

I watched its flight to that now coveted tope, and longed to be

there! The natives knew of no other species but the “ Cally and

Mani-praas,” and stoutly maintained there were none; I was

equally positive the bird that flew by was neither of them, and

hurried forward, thirst and heat were alike forgotten ; and when

I reached the spot, instead of partaking of the cocca-nuts which

the head-man’s forethought had provided there for me, I sprang

on the low wall and peered eagerly among the trees. Turtur

Suratensis and T. risortus perched about the branches in abun-

dance, and—could I believe my eyes ?—on a dry leafless “ matty”

projecting from a palmirah tree, and supporting the twigs of a

nest, sat a pair of the lovely little 7. Auzélis; there they were,

“billing and cooing,” m sweet but dangerous proximity, for the

same shot laid them both dead at my feet, and in another minute

a native lad who had followed me brought down two shining,

smooth, white eggs from their nest. This was not the only pair

in the tope, and I soon procured half a dozen specimens, and

might have killed as many more. An old head-man who was with

me, and who had the reputation of being the best sportsman in

my district, assured me he had neither seen nor heard of this

description of pigeon before; and so said all present, some of

them old men who had spent their lives in that neighbourhood.

I had lived more than a year in the district and killed dozens of

doves without finding one, nor did I ever after, though I often shot

along the cultivation, at the edge of the plain, meet with them.

Had they bred there that year only ? where did they come from ?

why did they select that lonely tope and keep so closely to it ? I

left the district and never could learn, nor did I ever find any

native who had met with them in other parts of the island.

Dr. Kelaart knew nothing of it, and only ineluded it in his list

on Mr. Blyth’s authority, and I furnished the latter with data ;

62 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

so whether the little colony raised their young and departed, or

breed there still, ‘remains an untold tale.”

215. Turtur ortentTatts, Lath.

I shot a young bird of this species from a small flock of

pigeons which flew over my head as I was travelling with the

late Dr. Gardner in the Pasdoom Corle in the month of Decem-

ber 1848.

216. Cuaxcoruars Inpicus, Linn. Nillo- or Nil-Cobeya, Cing. ;

lit. Blue Dove.

The “ Ground Dove” of Europeans seems not to extend north-

ward further than Kodally Kallu on the eastern, and Putlam on

the western sides; at least I never met with it beyond, and the

Tamuls have no name for it. About Colombo and all through

the wooded southern and central provinces it is abundant. It is

generally found on the ground, walking hastily about and pick-

ing up seeds ; being a bold, fearless bird of great power of wing,

it will permit approach to within a few paces, when, with a spring

into the air, it will dash onwards a few dozen yards, and again

settle ; a renewed approach drives it further off a second and a

third time, till driven beyond the range of its food, the lovely

bird will dart back to its old feeding ground with the rapidity

of thought, often brushing the intruder’s person with its wings,

while following the tortuous narrow windings of the native

path. It is principally abroad morning and evening, when its

plaintive lowing “coo” may be heard from almost every thicket.

In such situations they breed, laying two oval yellowish drab-

coloured eggs. Axis 12 lines; diam. 83 lines.

217. Pavo cristatus, Linn. Monara, Cing. Miyil, Tam.

Pavaan, Port. Mayal, Dutch.

Abundant in the mimosa jungles of the maritime districts,

but rare in the hills. They feed in flocks durmg the mornings

and evenings, and roost in trees, on which they may be seen at

daybreak expanding their tails and wings to dry.

218. Gatius Sranteyr, Gray. Kadoo-koly, Mal. Welle-

kukullo, Cing.; lit. Jungle Fowl. Wild-Hoén, Dutch.

Galienha di Matoe, Port.

The Jungle fowl is abundant in all the uncultivated portions

of Ceylon, but particularly so in the northern and north-western

provinces.

It comes out to feed morning and evening, upon the roads,

cultivated lands, or other open places. The cocks are generally

Mr. KE. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 63

seen alone, seldom in company with their hens, who, however,

are always in the neighbourhood, and keep together, even

though their broods may be of very different ages.

The cocks fight most desperately in defence of their seraglios,

the combat frequently terminating in the death of one of the

engaged parties. As they not unfrequently mingle with the

fowls of the lonely villages, they cross with the domestic breed,

being more than a match in courage for the plebeian dunghill

cocks, and armed with tremendous sharp spurs.

Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service, showed me, while

at Ratnapoora, a hybrid hen; her general appearance and call

much resembled that of the wild bird; her eggs also partook of

the spotted character, but Mr. Mitford never succeeded in rearing

any chicks from them, as they were always addled. The bird

was very tame to those with whom she was acquainted, but fled

precipitately at the approach of strangers.

The hen selects a decaying stump or thick bush for a nesting

place, and lays from six to twelve eggs, of a fine rich cream

colour, finely mottled with reddish brown specks. Axis 1 in.

9 lines; diam. 1 in. 4 lines. The young when just hatched

resemble young chickens, and the old mother leads them to

decaying prostrate trees, and scratches for white ants, which

they eagerly devour. They are hatched in June.

In wet weather, Jungle fowl keep much to thick trees, sitting

disconsolately with drooping head and tails among the branches ;

they also roost in trees at night, retiring to rest early. It

is rarely that a bird can be flushed, but when they do fly, it is

very much in the manner of the pheasant; they run with in-

credible swiftness, and trust to their powers in this respect for

safety. Their cry is a short crow, which resembles the words

“George Joyce,” sharply repeated.

It may not be out of place here, while upon the subject of

Jungle fowl, to mention the varieties of domestic breeds which

are found in the island.

The usual kind is the common fowl, which is considerably less

than the English breed, and lays a much smaller egg; it runs

through al] the same variations of plumage; but there is one

curious variety, which I cannot describe more aptly than by

comparing it to a white fowl drawn down a sooty chimney. On

preparing one of these fowls for the table, at which, by the way,

they excel all others in flavour and tenderness, the skin and peri-

osteum are-found nearly black ; the roof of the mouth, tongue,

wattles, and legs are also of a deep leaden hue. It is a remark-

able fact, that a male bird of the pure sooty variety is almost as

scarce as a tortoise-shell tom-cat.

The Cingalese call these fowls “ Calloo-mas-kukulo,” literally

64 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

black-flesh-fowl. Kukula means cock (or fowl taken as a whole) ;

kiki, hen; kukulo, plural, fowls.

The ingenious and learned author of ‘Ornamental and Do-

mestic Poultry*,’ at page 392, second edition, refers to these

fowls as having silky feathers, but with us in Ceylon this is not

the case.

The Frizztep or Frirstanp Fowt, of the same author

(p. 394), is also domesticated in Ceylon, but it is rare; the

Cingalese called it Capri-kukulo, and say it was originally im-

ported from Batavia. This accords with Temminck’s statements.

The Rumeress Fown, or RumxKIn (ibid. p. 387), is also plen-

tiful, but only in a domestic state. Temminck’s assertion that

it is a wild inhabitant of the island is surely a mistake, and the

Governor (Loten, I presume) who forwarded him the information -

must have been deceived by some head-man or other. I am

quite confident the bird does not exist wild in Ceylon ; the very

native name, ‘ Cochi-kukulo,” Cochin-fowl, implies its foreign

character.

The Cocuin Cuina Fown (ibid. p. 289) and Matay Fow1n

(p. 299) are both found in Ceylon; the former is called Maha-

cochi-kukulo, or “ large Cochin Fowi,’ and is common enough.

I have purchased them for 73d. each, while residmg at Pt.

Pedro; I mention this as a contrast to the absurd prices given

m England. The Malay fowl is principally found about the

lines of the native regiment of Ceylon Rifles; they belong to the

Malays, and are used in fighting, a sport of which that people,

as well as the Cingalese and Tamuls, are passionately fond. I,

however, never saw the true game cock in Ceylon.

CREEPERS (p. 384) are frequently met with; their curiously

short legs at once distinguish them from the common breed.

One variety has feathered legs, but I never met with true

Bantams.

The Potanp or Poxisu Fown (p. 364) was introduced many

years ago bya relative of my own, the original birds having been

procured from my father.

I am not sufficiently acquainted with all the varieties of

domestic fowis to state if other kinds are found in the island;

probably some which I have called “ common fowls” may be

more valuable varieties.

* Published at the office of the ‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle,’ London.

[To be continued. |

On Manufactured Sea-Water for the Aquarium. 65

VI.—On Manufactured Sea-Water for the Aquarium.

By P. H. Gossz, A.L.S.

Tue inconvenience, delay and expense attendant upon the pro-

curing of sea-water, from the coast or from the ocean, I had

long ago felt to be a great difficulty in the way of a general

adoption of the Marme Aquarium. Even in London it is an

awkward and preearious matter; how much more in inland

towns and country places, where it must always prove not only

a hindrance, but to the many an insuperable objection. The

thought had occurred to me, that, as the constituents of sea-

water are known, it might be practicable to manufacture it ;

since all that seemed necessary was to bring together the salts in

proper proportion, and add pure water till the solution was of

the proper specific gravity. Several scientific friends to whom

I mentioned my thoughts, expressed their doubts of the possi-

bility of the manufacture ; and one or two went so far as to say

that it had been tried, but that it had been found not to answer ;

that though it looked like sea-water, tasted, smelt, like the right

thing, yet it would not support animal life. Still, I could not

help saying, with the lawyers, “If not, why not ¢ a

Experientia docet. 1 determined to try the matter for myself.

I took Schweitzer’s analysis; but as I found that there was

some slight difference between his and Laurent’s, I concluded

that a very minute accuracy was not indispensable. Schweitzer

gives the following analysis of 1000 grains of sea-water taken off

Brighton :—

OW aber yi) i: » . 9640744

Chloride of sodium . . . 27:059

Chloride of magnesium . . 3666

Chloride of potassium . . 0°765

Bromide of magnesium. . 0:029

Sulphate of magnesia. . 2°295

Nulphate' of livie . . ... 1-407

Carbonate of ime .. . 0:033

999:998

The bromide of magnesium and the carbonate of lime I

thought I might neglect, from the minuteness of their quanti-

ties ; as also because the former was not found at all by M. Lau-

rent in the water of the Mediterranean ; and the latter might be

found in sufficient abundance in the fragments of shell, coral,

and calcareous algze, thrown in to make the bottom of the aqua-

rium. The sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris) also I ventured to

eliminate, on account of its extreme insolubility, and because

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 5

66 On Manufactured Sea-Water for the Aquarium.

M. Laurent finds it in excessively minute quantity. The com-

ponent salts were then reduced to four, which I used in the fol-

lowing quantities :—

Common table salt. . . . 3 ounces.

sOM SHES fo. goo Selena elena te ae Sis,

Chloride of magnesium . . 200 grains T

Chloride of potassium . 2g tae eis

To these salts, thrown into a jar, a little less than four quarts of

water (New River) were added, so that the solution was of that

density that a specific gravity bubble 1026 would just sink im it.

The cost of the substances was—sulph. mag. Id.; chloride

mag. 3d.; chlor. pot. 14d. ; salt, nil ;—total, 54d. per gallon. Of

course if a larger quantity were made the cost of the materials

would be diminished, so that we may set down 5d. per gallon as

the maximum cost of sea-water thus made. The trouble is

nothing, and no professional skill is requisite.

My manufacture was made on the 21st of April. The follow-

ing day I poured off about half of the quantity made (filtering

it through a sponge in a glass funnel) into a confectioner’s

show-glass. I put in a bottom of small shore-pebbles, well

washed in fresh water, and one or two fragments of stone with

fronds of green sea-weed (Ulva latissima) growmg thereon. I

would not at once venture upon the admission of animals, as I

wished the water to be first somewhat impregnated with the

scattered spores of the Ulva; and I thought.that if any subtle

elements were thrown off from growing vegetables, the water —

should have the advantage of it, before the entrance of animal

life. This too is the order of nature; plants first ; then animals.

A coating of the green spores was soon deposited on the sides

of the glass, and bubbles of oxygen were copiously thrown off

every day under the excitement of the sun’s hght. After a week

therefore I ventured to put in animals as follows :—

2 Actinia mesembryanthemum. Coryne ramosa.

7 Serpula triquetra. Crisia eburnea.

8 Balanus balanoides. aculeata.

2 Sabella ? Cellepora pumicosa.

2 Sabellaria (alveolata ?) Cellularia ciliata.

2 Spio vulgaris. Bowerbankia imbricata.

1 Cynthia (quadrangularis ?) Pedicellina Belgica.

These throve and flourished from day to day, manifesting the

highest health and vigour ; the plants (including one or two Red

Weeds that were introduced with the animals) looked well, and

the water continued brilliantly crystalline. Within the succeed-

ing month specimens of Actinia mesembryanthemum, A. angut-

Royal Society. 67

coma and A. clavata, a Trochus umbilicatus, and a Littorina lit-

torea were at different times added.

Six weeks have now elapsed since the introduction of the ani-

mals. I have just carefully searched over the jar, as well as

I could do it without disturbing the contents. I find every

one of the species and specimens mentioned above, all in high

health ; with the exception of some of the Polyzoa, viz. Crisia

eee Cellepora pumicosa, Cellularia ciliata, and Pedicellina

Belgica. These I cannot find, and I therefore conclude that

they have died out ; though if I chose to disturb the stones and

weeds, I might possibly detect them. These trifling defalcations

do in no wise interfere with the conclusion, that the experiment

of manufacturing sea-water for the Aquarium has been perfectly

successful.

P. H. Gosse.

58 Huntingdon Street, Barnsbury Park,

June 9, 1854.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

March 23, 1854.—Colonel Sabine, R.A., Treas. and V.P.,

in the Chair.

‘* Note on an indication of depth of Primeval Seas, afforded by the

remains of colour in Fossil Testacea.” By Edward Forbes, F.R.S.,

Pres. G.S. &c.

When engaged in the investigation of the bathymetrical distribu-

tion of existing mollusks, the author found that not only did the

colour of their shells cease to be strongly marked at considerable

depths, but also that well-defined patterns were, with very few and

slight exceptions, presented only by testacea inhabiting the littoral,

circumlittoral and median zones. In the Mediterranean only one in

eighteen of the shells taken from below 100 fathoms exhibited any

markings of colour, and even the few that did so, were questionable

inhabitants of those depths. Between 35 and 55 fathoms, the pro-

portion of marked to plain shells was rather less than one in three,

and between the sea-margin and 2 fathoms the striped or mottled

species exceeded one-half of the total number.

In our own seas the author observes that testacea taken from below

100 fathoms, even when they were individuals of species vividly

striped or banded in shallower zones, are quite white or colourless.

Between 60 and 80 fathoms, striping and banding are rarely

presented by our shells, especially in the northern provinces ;

and from 50 fathoms shallow-wards, colours and patterns are well

marked.

The relation of these arrangements of colour to the degrees of

light penetrating the different zones of depth, is a subject well worthy

of minute inquiry, and has not yet been investigated by natural phi-

losophers.

5* a

68 - Royal Society.

The purpose in this brief notice is not, however, to pursue this

kind of research, but to put on record an application of our know-

ledge of the fact that vivid patterns are not presented by testacea

living below certain depths, to the indication of the depth, within

certain limits, of paleeozoic seas, through an examination of the

traces of colour afforded by fossil remains of testacea.

Although their original colour is very rarely exhibited by fossil

shells, occasionally we meet with specimens in which, owing proba-

bly to organic differences in the minute structure of the coloured

and colourless portions of the shell, the pattern of the original paint-

ing is clearly distinguished from the ground tint. Not afew exam-

ples are found in Mesozoic as well as in Tertiary strata, but in all

the instances on record, the association of species, mostly closely allied

to existing types, and the habits of the animals of the genera to

which they belong, are such as to prevent our having much difficulty

about ascertaining the probable bathymetrical zone of the sea in

which they lived.

But in paleozoic strata the general assemblage of articulate, mol-

luscan and radiate forms is so different from any now existing with

which we can compare it, and so few species of generic types

still remaining are presented for our guidance, that in many in-

stances we can scarcely venture to infer with safety the original

bathymetrical zone of a deposit from its fossil contents. Con-

sequently any fact that will help us in elucidating this point be-

comes of considerable importance.

~ ‘Traces of colouring are rarely presented by palzeozoic fossils, and

the author knows of few examples in which they have been noticed.

Professor Phillips, i his ‘ Geology of Yorkshire,’ represents the car-

boniferous species, Pleurotomaria flammigera (i. e. carinata) and co-

nica, as marked with colour, and Sowerby has figured such mark-

ings in P. carinata and P. rotundata. In the excellent monograph

of the carboniferous fossils of Belgium, by Professor De Koninck of

Liége, indications of pattern-colouring are faintly shown in the

figures of Solarium pentangulatum, and distinctly in those of Pleu-

rotomaria carinata and Patella solaris.

In the cabinets of the Geological Survey of Great Britain are

some finely-preserved fossils from the carboniferous limestone of

Parkhill, near Longnor in Derbyshire. Among these are several

that present unmistakeable pattern-markings, evidently derived from

the original colouring. They are—

Pleurotomaria carinata and conica, showing wavy blotches, resem-

bling the colouring of many recent Trochide.

An undescribed Trochus, showing a spiral band of colour.

Metoptoma pileus, and

Patella ? retrorsa, both with radiating stripes, such as are pre-

sented by numerous existing Patellide.

Natica plicistria, with broad mottled bands.

Aviculo-pecten, a large unnamed species, with spotty markings on

the ribs in the manner of many existing Pectines.

Aviculo-pecten sublobatus, Ph.? Beautifully marked with radiating,

well-defined stripes, varying in each individual, and resembling the

Zoological Society. 69

patterns presented by those recent Avicule that inhabit shallows

and moderate depths.

Aviculo-pecten intercostatus and elongatus also exhibit markings.

Spirifer decorus and Orthis resupinata, show fine radiating white

lines.

Terebratula hastata, with radiating stripes.

The analogy of any existing forms that can be compared with

those enumerated, would lead to the conclusion that the markings

in these instances are characteristic of mollusks living in a less

depth of water than 50 fathoms. In the case of the Terebratula,

which belongs to a genus the majority of whose living representa-

tives inhabit deep water, it may be noticed that all the living spe-

cies exhibiting striped shells are exceptions to the rule, and come

from shallow water.

There are many circumstances which warrant us to suspect that

the carboniferous mountain limestone of most regions was a deposit

in shallow water. The facts now adduced materially strengthen

this inference.

In the British Museum there is a beautifully spotted example of a

Devonian Terebratula, brought by Sir John Richardson from Boreal

America.

Specimens of the Turbo rupestris, from the Lower Silurian Lime-

stone of the Chair of Kildare near Dublin, exhibit appearances that

seem to indicate spiral bands of colour.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 9, 1852.—J. S. Bowerbank, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

DESCRIPTIONS OF A NEW GENUS, AND OF SEVERAL NEW SPECIES,

or Mouuusca, FROM THE CUMINGIAN COLLECTION.

By ArtHur Apams, F.L.S: Etc.

Family SOLENELLID.

Animal oblong. Mantle open in the entire length; margin

double, outer edge fimbriated ; hind outer edge ending in two cal-

lous conical processes immediately below the respiratory orifice.

Respiratory orifice continuous with the opening of the mantle, the

margin fringed ; anal siphon simple-edged, tubular, elongate, muscu-

lar, produced beyond the fringed mantle-margin which surrounds its

base. Gill single on each side, attached the whole length. Labial

palps elongate, fringed at their margins, and surrounded at their base

by a thin dilated membrane. Foot large, compressed, geniculate,

ending anteriorly in a folded ovate disc with crenate margins.

Shell thin, not pearly within. Hinge-margin with comb-like

teeth. Ligament external.

Genus Neizto, A. Adams.

Testa transversa equivalvis, inequilateralis, epidermide fusco

tenui induta, latere postico hians. Dentibus cardinalibus,

nullis, lateribus anticis et posticis plurimis in serie rectiuscula

70 Zoological Society.

dispositis; dentibus parvis acutis ; impressionibus musculari-

bus subdistantibus, impressione pallii sinu magno ; ligamento

externo elongato.

This genus differs from Solenella, not only in its Leda-like form,

but in the hinge-margin having as many teeth anteriorly as poste-

riorly. In Solenella the series of teeth is confined to the fulerum to

which the external ligament is attached ;—in this genus the teeth ex-

tend along the entire hinge-margin.

Nrito Cumineit, A. Adams. WN. testa transversa, equivalvt,

inequilaterali, epidermide tenui viridi-fusco obtecta, trans-

verse concentrice sulcata; latere antico clauso, rotundato,

postico longiore, subangulato, hiante, margine truncato flexuoso,

superne auriculato.

From the circumstance of the hind margin gaping considerably

and being divided as if for two siphons, the anal and branchial tubes

in this animal are probably distinct and elongated, as in Leda. The

genus Neilo, in fact, will represent Leda, of the family Nuculide, in

a distinct family, Solenellide, characterized by the external ligament

of the hinge. It is from the shores of New Zealand.

ConcHOLEPAS (CoRALLIOBIA) FIMBRIATA, A. Adams. C. testa

ovata alba, longitudinaliter radiatim costata, transverse la-

mellosa, lamellis pulcherrime fimbriatis ; spira minuta, an-

fractu ultimo amplo; apertura ovali, antice attenuata, sub-

canaliculata ; labio excavato incurvato, margine externo dila-

tato et valde reflexo; labro acuto, margine late dilatato et

eleganter fimbriato.

Hab. Cagayan, province of Misamis, island of Mindanao, Philip-

pines. On the coral reefs at low water (7. C.). Mus. Cuming.

Externally this curious shell resembles Concholepas, but the ab-

sence of the two teeth on the fore part of the outer lip prevents it

being strictly referred to that genus. In the character of the inner

lip, and in its place of habitation on coral reefs, it approaches Lepto-

conchus, and perhaps it has affinities also with Pedicularia. I have

thought it best, until the animal is known, to regard it as a sub-

genus of Concholepas, under the name of Coralliobia.

Paxi1Ltus minor, A. Adams. PP. testa dextrorsa, ovali, tenui,

epidermide fusca obtecta; anfractibus septem, convexis, longt-

tudinaliter confertim costellatis vel valde striatis ; apertura

suborbiculari, ascendente, antice subproducta ; peristomate

duplici, externo reflexo, dilatato ; labio plica dentiformi valida

instructo.

Hab. ?

I believe the little shell described above to be a dextral species of

the genus Pavzillus, described by my brother and myself in the

‘Annals’ for January, 1851. We there considered the genus to be-

long possibly to duriculide; but an examination of this species,

and a better knowledge of the locality where the shells have been

found, lead us to place them amongst the Helicide.

DirpLomMATINA Bensont, A. Adams. D. testa minima via r-

Zoological Society. 71

mata sinistrorsa, cylindrico-ovata, costellata, costulis distan-

tibus obliquis regularibus ; anfractibus sex, convexis, apice

subobtuso ; apertura rotundata ; peristomate duplicato, ex-

terno expanso reflexo, interno recto, margine flexuoso.

Hab. On the banks of a river, Moreton Bay, E. Australia (Mr.

Strange). :

This very pretty little shell agrees in all its characters with the

genus Diplommatina of Mr. Benson, after whom I have named it.

There is some difficulty in the location of this genus. Mr. Benson

says distinctly that the eyes are “on the posterior part of the teuta-

cula, at their base,”’ but he says there is no operculum. Mr. Gray,

on the other hand, has described the operculum. The true position

is probably in Truncatellide.

CRASSATELLA specIosA, A. Adams. (C. testa transverse ovata,

subequilaterali, pallida, epidermide tenui fusca induta, con-

centrice plicata ; plicis confertis regularibus; latere postico

rotundato, antico acuminato subrostrato, angulato, margine

ventrali convexo, antice sinuato.

Hab. Bay of Campeachy. Mus. Cuming.

The beaks in this species are acute and close together, and rather

more deeply plicate than the rest of the surface of the valves; there

is an obtuse oblique and angular ridge extending from the umbones

to the ventral margin.

CRASSATELLA Lzvis, A. Adams. C. testa ovato-transversa,

crassa, tumida, subaquilaterali, castanea, levigata, concentrice

striata, natibus subsulcatis ; latere postico rotundato, antico

producto subrostrato, margine oblique truncato, carina obtusa a

natibus ad basin decurrente instructo, posteriori sulcato, mar-

gine ventrali convexo antice sinuato.

Hab. La Guayra (M. Le Marie, French Navy). Mus. Cuming.

A large smooth pale chestnut shell beaked anteriorly and with a

prominent obtuse keel extending from the beaks to the fore part of

the ventral margin, and a broad shallow groove behind it ; the lunule

is ovate lanceolate, and the beaks are transversely sulcate.

CRASSATELLA oBscURA, A. Adams. C. testa ovato-trigonali,

transversa, subequilaterali, compressa, nigro-fusca, apicibus

transverse corrugata, ad umbonem plicata; latere antico

rotundato, postico subtruncato; margine valvarum intus cre-

nulato.

Hab. China Seas, deep water. Mus. Cuming.

A small brown-black species, with the valves only plicate near the

beaks and their inner margins finely crenulated.

CRASSATELLA BELLULA, A. Adams. OC. festa ovato-trigonali,

subequilaterali, carneo-fulva, immaculata, transverse con-

centrice plicata ; plicis obtusis subconfertis regularibus, antice

undulatis, subevanidis (sub lente rugulosis) ; latere postico

rotundato, antico vie truncato; umbonibus acutis parvis ap-

proximatis.

Hab. New Zealand (Mr. Hart). Mus. Cuming.

72 Royal Institution.

A beautiful pinkish yellow species, without any spots or markings,

with the plicee on the fore part undulated and rugulose under the

lens.

CRASSATELLA TRUNCATA, A. Adams. OC. testa ovata, com-

pressa, carnea, pallidiori ad partem anticam, radiis angustis

inconspicuis ornata, inequilaterali, latere antico breviort et

rotundato, postico dilatato et truncato, linea elevata e umbo-

nibus ad marginem ventralem; transversim valde costata,

costis acutis subimbricatis.

Hab. China Sea, deep water (4. Adams).

This is a small pale pink or flesh-coloured species, strongly rib-

bed, the ribs being sharp, prominent and imbricated; the posterior

side is dilated and truneate, and the surface of the valves is marked

with faint linear radiating lines.

CRASSATELLA cComptTa, A. Adams. C. testa ovato-trigonali,

subequilaterali, apicibus antrorsum curvatis, rufescenti, trans-

verse concentrice plicata; plicis validis, regularibus, subdi-

stantibus ; latere antico angustiori, postico latiort, rotundato,

interne purpurascente.

Hab. China Sea, deep water (4. Addams).

This is a small red species, with prominent curved beaks, strongly

plicate transversely, and of a purplish pink colour in the interior of

the valves.

CRASSATELLA CONCINNA, A. Adams. C. testa ovato-transversa,

subequilaterali, epidermide tenui fusca obtecta, utrinque ro-

tundata, concentrice plicata, plicis validis regularibus rufo-

fusco articulatis ; interstitiis creberrime longitudinaliter stria-

tis; umbonibus acutis confertis.

Hab. China Sea, deep water (4. ddams).

A small fuscous species, of an ovate form, rounded at both ends,

with the transverse plicee strongly produced and prettily articulated

with brownish red.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

May 12, 1854.—Sir Henry Holland, Bart., M.D., F.R.S., Vice-

President, in the Chair.

On the common Plan of Animal Forms. By Tuomas Hux .ey, Ksq.,

F.R.S.

The Lecturer commenced by referring to a short essay by Goethe —

the last which proceeded from his pen—containing a critical account

of a discussion bearing upon the doctrine of the Unity of Organization

of Animals, which had then (1830) just taken place in the French

Academy. Gerthe said that, for him, this controversy was of more

importance than the Revolution of July which immediately followed

it—a declaration which might almost be regarded as a prophecy ; for

while the Charte and those who established it have vanished as

though they had never been, the Doctrine of Unity of Organization

Royal Institution. 73

retains a profound interest and importance for those who study the

science of life.

It would be the object of the Lecturer to explain, how the con-

troversy in question arose, and to show what ground of truth was

common to the combatants.

The variety of Forms of Animals is best realized, perhaps, by re-

flecting, that there are certainly 200,000 species, and that each

species is, in its zoological dignity, not the equivalent of a family or

a nation of men merely, but of the whole Human Race. It would

be hopeless to attempt to gain a knowledge of these forms, therefore,

if it were not possible to discover points of similarity among large

numbers of them, and to classify them into groups,—one member of

which might be taken to represent the whole. A rough practical

classification, based on obvious resemblances, is as old as language

itself; and the whole purpose of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy

has consisted chiefly in giving greater exactness to the definition and

expression of these intuitive perceptions of resemblance.

The Lecturer proceeded to show how the celebrated Camper illus-

trated these resemblances of the organs of animals, by drawing the

arm of a man, and then by merely altering the proportions of its con-

stituent parts, converting it mto a bird’s wing, a horse’s fore-leg,

&e. &c. Organs which can in this way be shown to grade into one

another, are said to be the same organs, or in anatomical phraseology

are Homologous :—and by thus working out the homologies of all

the organs of the Vertebrate class, Geoffroy, Oken, and Owen,—to

the last of whom we are indebted for by far the most elaborate and

logical development of the doctrine,—have demonstrated the homo-

logy of all the parts of the Vertebrata, or im other words, that there

is a common plan on which all those animals which possess back-

bones are constructed.

Precisely the same result has been arrived at, by the same methods,

in another great division of the Animal Kingdom— the Annulosa.

As an illustration, the Lecturer showed how the parts of the mouth

of all insects were modifications of the same elements, and briefly

sketched the common plan of the Annulosa, as it may be deduced

from the investigations of Savigny, Audouin, Milne-Edwards, and

Newport.

Leaving out of consideration (for want of time merely) the Ra-

diate animals,-and passing to the remaining great division, the

Mollusca, it appears that the same great principle holds good even

for these apparently unsymmetrical and irregular creatures: and the

Lecturer, after referring to the demonstration of the common plan

upon which those Mollusks possessing heads are constructed,—

which he bad already given in the Philosophical Transactions,

—stated that he was now able to extend that plan to the remaining

orders, and briefly explained in what way the ‘ Archetypal Mollusk ’

is modified in the Lamellibranchs, Brachiopoda, Tunicata, and

Polyzoa.

We have, then, acommon plan of the Vertebrata, of the Articulata,

of the Mol/usca, and of the Radiata,—and to come to the essence of

74 Royal Institution.

the controversy in the Académie des Sciences—are all these com-

mon plans identical, or are they not?

Now, if we confine ourselves to the sole method which Cuvier

admitted—the method of the insensible gradation of forms—there can

be no doubt that the Vertebrate, Annulose and Molluscan plans are

sharply and distinctly marked off from one another, by very definite

characters ; and the existence of any common plan, of which they are

modifications, is a purely hypothetical assumption, and may or may

not be true. But is there any other method of ascertainmg a com-

munity of plan beside the method of Gradation ?

The Lecturer here drew an illustration from Philology—a science

which in determining the affinities of words also employs the me

thod of gradation. Thus unus, uno, un, one, ein, are said to be

modifications of the same word, because they pass gradually into one

another. So Hemp, Hennep, Hanf, and Cannabis, Canapa, Chanvre,

are respectively modifications of the same word: but suppose we

wish to make out what, if any, affinity exists between Hemp and

Cannabis, the method of gradation fails us. It is only by all sorts

of arbitrary suppositions that one can be made to pass into the other.

Nevertheless modern Philology demonstrates that the words are

the same, by a reference to the independently ascertained laws of

change and substitution for the letters of corresponding words, in the

Indo-Germanic tongues: by showing, in fact, that though these

words are not the same, yet they are modifications by known de-

velopmental laws of the same root.

Now Von Bar has shown that the study of development has a pre-

cisely similar bearing upon the question of the unity of organization

of animals. He indicated, in his masterly essays published five-

and-twenty years ago, that though the common plans of the adult

forms of the great classes are not identical, yet they start in the

course of their development from the same point. And the whole

tendency of modern research is to confirm his conclusion.

If, then, with the advantage of the great lapse of time and pro-

gress of knowledge, we may presume to pronounce judgment where

Cuvier and Geoffroy St. Hilaire were the litigants—it may be said

that Geoffroy’s inspiration was true, but his mode of working it out

false. An insect is not a vertebrate animal, nor are its legs free ribs.

A cuttlefish is not a vertebrate animal doubled up. But there was a

period in the development of each, when insect, cuttlefish, and verte-

brate were undistinguishable and had a Common Plan.

The Lecturer concluded by remarking, that the existence of hotly

controverted questions between men of knowledge, ability, and

especially of honesty and earnestness of purpose, such as Cuvier and

his rival were, is an opprobium to the science which they profess.

He would feel deeply rewarded if he had produced in the minds of his

hearers the conviction that these two great men—friends as they

were to one another—need not be set in scientific opposition ; that

they were both true knights doing battle for science ; but that as the

old story runs, each came by his own road to a different side of

the shield.

Miscellaneous. 75

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Formation of the Stomata in the Epidermis of the Leaves of

the Spiderwort (Tradescantia virginica), und on the Evolution

of the Cells in their neighbourhood. By Dr. GARREAU.

WueENn a fragment, taken from the outer axillary portion of a very

young leaf of the common Spiderwort, is examined by the microscope,

it presents quadrilateral cells, the cavities of which are partially

occupied by a smooth nucleus which has not yet become fila-

mentous. Amongst these cells, at tolerably regular distances, others

are seen possessing the same transverse diameter, but only half the

size in the direction of the axis of the leaf; the proteic matter con-

tained in them is less united, more granular, and of a more amber-

like tint than that of the preceding cells. These new cells give origin

to the two semilunar cells of the stomate, and this metamorphosis

commences by the separation into two little masses of the azotized

matter which they contain. Between these masses the outline of a

double diaphragm is first observed ; this separates the cell into two

chambers, and soon splits and separates to form the stomatic orifice,

a change which takes place concurrently with a partial resorption

exercised by the new cells upon the parent cell.

Before this metamorphosis takes place, the parent cell corresponds

at its two extremities with two cells, of which the nuclei are supported

upon the portion of the cell-wall which touches these extremities.

These nuclei, which are at first simple, soon emit filaments which

run to a certain distance, near the centre of the cell, where they form

a little mass of their constituent matter, a second nucleus. Scarcely

has this change taken place, than the oldest nucleus, which is con-

tiguous to the lateral wall of the parent cell, liquefies the portion of

the wall of the cell which encloses it, and appears as if it would pene-

trate into the parent cell of the stomate, of which it then touches the

wall. This liquefaction soon stops, and the semifluid matter is seen

to surround itself with a pellucid membrane which constitutes the

nascent cell. This cell at this period, is lodged partially in a notch

of the wall of that from which it has arisen; but in consequence of

the growth of both these cells, this notch becomes effaced, and only

appears like a slight curve. The cell which has lost a portion of its

wall does not appear to be perforated, but it is probable that at the

point where the dissolution was effected, there is nothing but a simple

wall belonging to the new cell.

The two cells situated above and below the stomate are originally

square; they afterwards become elongated, and the nucleus which

occupies the centre of each of them emits proteic processes, which

run towards the wall of the cell contiguous to the acute extremities of

the stomatic cells, and accumulate their proper substance at this

point ; this substance soon envelopes itself in a very thin membrane,

so as to constitute a distinct, cell, but still contained within the

former, which appears from that time to be divided mto two by a

simple septum. This new cell, which at first is much broader than

76 Miscellaneous.

long, soon elongates until it acquires a nearly square form, which it

retains.

This mode of multiplication appears interesting, as it seems to show

the solvent action exerted by proteic substances upon cellulose mem-

brane and the part which they play in its regeneration, pheenomena

which, as may be seen, are not without analogy with those observable

during the evolution of spores, pollen, &c. Another fact worthy of

remark is, that in these formations the generation of the cells ex-

tends to all those contiguous to the parent cell of the stomate. —

Comptes Rendus, 17th April, 1854, p. 744.

Description of a new Genus of Bivalve Mollusea.

By H. and A. Apams.

Genus Myrina, H. and A. Adams.

Shell transverse, oblong, subequilateral ; valves closed, covered with

a horny epidermis, pearly within; beaks subcentral. Hinge eden-

tulous, ligament internal, linear ; muscular impressions far apart,

pallial impression simple. Byssiferous.

A single species, for which we propose the name M. Denhami, was

discovered by the Officers of H.M.S. Herald, attached to floating

masses of blubber.

On the Dimorphism of the Uredinee. By M. Tunasne.

Since numerous observations have placed it beyond a doubt that

a vast number of Fungi possess reproductive bodies of several kinds,

there is in the history of the Uredinee a fact, which, I think, admits

of a more satisfactory interpretation than it has hitherto received. I

refer to the simultaneous presence or succession in the same sori of

two sorts of fruits (spores), which are attributed to different species.

Some mycologists see in this nothing but a cohabitation, which,

although frequent, is by no means necessary ; others suppose a com-

pulsory relation between the two Uredines,—that of a parasite with

its host. If the latter opinion prevailed, instead of four or five

Phragmidia and a few Puccinie, which would be parasitic upon

various Uredines, as is usually believed, we should have, as I have

convinced myself, a multitude of other Puccinie, the Uromyces, the

Pilularia, the Triphragmia, the Coleosporia, the Melampsore, the

Cronartia, and no doubt many other Uredinee which | have not

yet been able to study sufficiently. Thus the Uredinee would not

only live, as is really the case, as parasites upon the vascular plants,

but they would also offer among themselves an example of parasitism

quite unknown in the history of organized bodies, as about a third

of their species would be charged with the nourishment of another

third. This parasitism would also present a very unprecedented cha-

racter, for it would prevail between plants almost identical with each

other, or at all events united by the closest affinities, whilst, even

amongst the simplest beings, there are generally well-characterized

organic differences between the parasite and its host. The parasitic

life attributed to the Phragmidia, the Puccini, the Cronartia, and

other Uredinee, in relation to the Uredines proper, is therefore a

Miscellaneous. a

priori extremely improbable. Direct observation does not appear to

me to render it at all more probable, for the productions in question

are often met with quite independently of each other. As to those who

only see in the Uredines and their hosts, associations or cohabitations

comparable to those of the various grasses which compose our mea-

dows, they perhaps will not recognize the importance of the phzeno-

menon in question, and may misunderstand its signification. Against

them they have the often striking resemblance between the Uredo

and the Fungus which is united with it, and especially the constant

order of their respective appearance, the Uredo always preceding its

companion. This resemblance and succession evidently indicate re-

lations between the productions which present them, and as these

relations cannot be those of parasitism, they may be with more pro-

bability regarded as the indications of specific identities, which were

suspected by some old observers, but which have been universally

neglected by the mycologists of the present day. In truth, there is

searcely room to hope that we shall ever be able to furnish a direct

proof of this identity, or one obtained by sowing, in consequence of

the almost insurmountable difficulties attending the culture of Fungi,

and especially that of the Hntophyta ; but even if the supposed proof

were obtained in this manner, it would stiil be very legitimately open

to criticism from the nature of these difficulties, and moreover its

place may readily be supplied. At least, I think, that the attentive

observation of the successive development of the heterosporous Ure-

dinee gives us sufficient authority for believing that these are not, as

is now generally supposed, Uredines associated in pairs, but Uredines

furnished with a double apparatus of reproduction and capable in

consequence of assuming two different forms.

' Amongst these peculiar Uredinee, the Phragmidia and Puccinie

are those which have especially attracted the attention of observers.

Many have thought that the spherical or oval spores which are first

produced in their sori, and which now constitute various species of

Uredinee (Lecythee s. Epitee and Trichobasis sp. recentior), were

only either the true grains of these Phragmidia and Puccinia, or a

still imperfect state of their plurilocular fruit. The former of these

opinions wrongly supposes that these pretended grains are engendered

in these backward fruits, and the second requires the admission of

a transformation which has not actually been proved; but both

ascribe to one and the same plant the two sorts of reproductive

bodies which succeed each other on the same pulvinulus (Chirode,

Lév.). In a great number of Puccinia, fruits intermediate in form

between the spherical grains or Uredo, and the bilocular fruits or

Puccinia, imdicate evidently that these two kinds of reproductive

organs belong to one and the same Fungus. Nevertheless, notwith-

standing the numerous examples of dimorphism presented by the

Phragmidia, Puccinie and Uromyces, these Uredinee do not per-

haps prove our opinion in so satisfactory a manner as the Coleosporia,

Melampsore and Cronartia.

The pulvinuli of the Coleosporia, Lév. (Uredo tremellosa, Str. et

affines) have at first apparently all the same organization; but some

of them soon become converted into spherical and pulverulent fruits

78 Miscellaneous.

or spores, whilst others remain entire and solid, the obovate and seg-

mented cells of which they are composed each emitting three or four

long tubes terminated by large reniform spores. This second mode

of fructification, which has hitherto remained unknown, is sometimes

coexistent with the former in the same sori; it betrays the close

affinity which unites the Coleosporia with the Puccinie and Phrag-

midia, and completely justifies the interpretation which we propose

to give for the reproductive apparatus of all these Entophytal Fungi.

The Melampsore, Cast. (Xylomatum sp. Fr. 8. M. i. 261, Sele-

rotiorum veterib.) resemble the Coleosporia in their double structure,

but differ from them in many respects. Their Uredo-pulvinuli

(Lecythee and Podosporia, Lév. partim) have also an earlier deve-

lopment than the sori, which do not become pulverulent ; the latter

are formed of simple cells (unilocular) which only produce a single

germ, which is terminal or basilar and usually tetrasporous, like that

of the Puccinie or Podisomata (see my note on the germination of

the Uredinee, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ xxxvi. p. 1093). The dissemina-

tion of the spores or grains of the so-called Uredo takes place in

summer and autumn ; the spores, properly so called, of the solid pulvi-

nuli are only produced, on the contrary, towards the end of the winter

or in the beginning of spring ; they are of an orange or yellow colour

in Melampsora betulina, N., M. populina, Fr., M. Tremule, N., and

M. salicina, Fr., and of a cinereous tint in M. areolata, Fr. The

production of these late spores is a phenomenon hitherto unob-

served, and proves at once that the Me/ampsore are certainly Fungi,

and Fungi belonging to the group Uredinee ; two facts which have

both been disputed by some mycologists.

As to the Cronartia, their delicate ligula is neither fistular, as is

generally supposed, nor intended to carry out the propagative cor-

puscules of the Fungus ; it is solid, and formed of cells which become

seminiferous in the same manner as the chambers of a Puccinia, so

that it must be regarded as the analogue of the ligula or columella of

the Podisomata (see my observations on the Tremellinee in the An-

nales des Sci. Nat. xix. p. 205). The spores with which it is covered

are white and of a globose-ovoid form. Besides this complicated

reproductive apparatus, which has been so misunderstood hitherto,

the Cronartia possess another which makes its appearance earlier.

The ligula in fact is usually surrounded at its base with ovoid or

globular, pedicled cells, which are also evidently organs of repro-

duction, constituting an Uredo (U. Vincetowici, DeC., U. Peoniarum,

Desm.) in the sense usually attached to this word*.

Thus the truth of the question before us will be perhaps less on

the side of the philosophers than on that of the cultivators, who

maintain that the d/ack rust of the harvests is the second age of the

orange rust which infests the plants in spring. According to our

views, in fact, the Puccinia graminis, Pers., and the P. coronata,

Cord., which form the greater part of the black rust of the Cereals,

would claim, as belonging to them reciprocally, the Uredo linearis,

Pers. and U. Rubigo-vera, DeC., to which the orange rust of the

* This Uredo would be a Trichobasis with M. Léveillé.

Meteorological Observations. 79

same plants in spring is also principally due. Persoon, Banks,

DeCandolle and other botanists, have more or less partaken of the

popular feeling to which we have just referred, but they have all

explained it in such a manner as to show that the black fruits of the

graminicolous Puccinie would he orange at the commencement of

their development, and in this condition would have been taken for

Uredines. None of these observers, I believe, have suspected the

existence in this case of the phenomenon of dimorphism.

Now that the discoveries recently made in the history of the lower

animals have shown what astonishing transformations their specific

identity may undergo, these suppositions will be received, I imagine,

with less prejudice, especially as they are already supported by a

sufficient number of facts to remove a great deal of their apparent

temerity. I have moreover great reason to hope that new observa-

tions will soon confirm them.—Comptes Rendus, 24th April, 1854,

p- 761. ———= =

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR MAY 1854.

Chiswick.—May 1. Rain. 2. Rain: low white clouds. 3. Cloudy. 4. Very

fine. 5. Foggy: very fine. 6. Cloudy: uniformly overcast: slight frost at night.

7. Fine: rain. 8. Heavy rain. 9. Showery: thunder, with heavy showers. 10,

11. Cloudy. 12. Foggy: very fine: boisterous at night. 13. Fine. 14, 15. Very

fine. 16. White clouds: partially overcast: very clear: frosty. 17. Uniform

haze : clear, with very dry air: overcast. 18. Uniformly overcast: clear at night :

frosty. 19. Clear and fine. 20. Cloudless: very fine: clear. 21. Cloudy and

fine: rain. 22. Densely clouded: rain. 23. Rain: fine: very clear. 24. Heavy

showers: clear at night: frosty. 25. Fine: showers, partly hail: clear. 26.

Heavy clouds: very fine: heavy rain at night. 27. Heavy rain: hail-storm, with

thunder and lightning quarter to five p.m.: clear at night. 28. Fine: cloudy:

showery: heavy rain. 29. Rain. 340. Overcast: rain: cloudy. 31. Very fine

throughout.

Mean temperature of the month ............ceeeeveeseceees SOE 50°07

Mean' temperature of May 1853) ....<c....<-..-0c0x-2.s-seses- 008 51 +27

Mean temperature of May for the last twenty-eight years . 53 ‘85

AVeTAze AMOUNL Oram Maye cc.c-oonscsscrissseecosetersenste 1°77 inch.

Boston.—May 1. Cloudy: raina.m. 2. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 3. Cloudy:

rain pM. 4. Fine. 5. Cloudy: rain p.m. 6. Fine. 7. Cloudy: rain, with

thunder and lightning a.m. andr.m. 8. Cloudy. 9. Cloudy: rain, with thunder

and lightning a.m. and p.m. 10. Cloudy. 11. Cloudy: rain a.m. 12. Fine.

13. Cloudy. 14, 15. Fine. 16. Cloudy. 17. Fine. 18. Cloudy: rain a.m. 19,

20. Fine. 21. Cloudy. 22. Cloudy: raina.m. 23. Rain a.m. andp.m. 24.

Cloudy: rain a.m. 25. Fine. 26. Cloudy: rain a.m. 27. Cloudy: rain a.m.

ande.M. 28. Fine. 29. Cloudy: rain a.m. 30. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m.

31. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—May 1. Clear a.M.: drops P.M. 2. Clear, fine A.M. :

clear p.m. 3—5. Clear andfine a.m. and p.m. 6. Clear a.m.: rain p.m. 7. Clear

and fine a.m. and p.m. 8. Clear, fine A.m.: cloudy p.m. 9, 10. Bright a.m. :

showers P.M. 11. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 12. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 13.

Bright a.M.: showers p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m.: drizzle, showers P.M. 15. Clear

A.M. and P.M. 16. Drops a.m.: damp p.m. 17. Showers a.m. and p.m. 18.

Clear a.m. and r.m. 19. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 20, 21. Showers a.m.: cloudy

p.M. 22. Cloudy a.M.: drops p.M. 23, Clear a.m. and p.m. 24. Bright a.m. :

clear p.M. 25. Cloudy a.m.: rain p.m. 26—30. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 31.

Damp A.M. : drizzle p.m.

Mean temperature of May for twenty-seven previous years . 47°-98

Mean temperature of this month ................ osotocereacnes 48 +39

Mean’ temperatureroie May Sool .cscccncsssecccee sea secstenaces =. 49 -67

Average quantity of rain in May for thirteen preyious years. 1°68 inch.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 80. AUGUST 1854.

Vil.—Researches on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

By Wa po J. Burnerr, M.D., Boston *.

Every naturalist is aware of the remarkable phenomena con-

nected with the viviparous reproduction of Aphides or plant-lice,

for their singularity has led them to be recounted in works other

than those of natural science, and, from the days of the earlier

observers, they have been the theme of a kind of wonder-story

in zoology and physiology.

I need not here go over the historical relations of this subject.

The queer experiments and the amusing writings of the old ento-

mologists are well known. The brief history of the general con-

ditions of the development of these insects is as follows :—In the

early autumn the colonies of plant-lice are composed of both male

and female individuals; these pair, the males then die, and the

females soon begin to deposit their eggs, after which they die also.

Early in the ensuing spring, as soon as the sap begins to flow,

these eggs are hatched, and the young lice immediately begin to

pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, increase rapidly

in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this state it is

found that the whole brood, without a single exception, consists

solely of females, or rather and more properly, of individuals

which are capable of reproducing their kind. This reproduction

takes place by a viviparous generation, there being formed in the

individuals in question young lice, which, when capable of enter-

ing upon individual life, escape from their progenitor and form a

new and greatly creased colony. This second generation pur-

sues the same course as the first, the individuals of which it is

composed being, like those of the first, sexless, or at least without

any trace of the male sex throughout. These same conditions

are then repeated, and so on almost indefinitely, experiments

having shown that this power of reproduction under such circum-

* From Silliman’s American Journal for January 1854.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv.

82 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

stances may be exercised, according to Bonnet *, at least through

nine generations, while Duvaut} obtained thus eleven generations

im seven months, his experiments being curtailed at this stage,

not by a failure of the reproductive power, but by the approach

of winter which killed his specimens ; and Kybert even observed

that a colony of Aphis dianthi which had been brought into a

constantly heated room, continued to propagate for four years, in

this manner, without the intervention of males, and even in this

instance it remains to be proved how much longer these phzno-

mena might have been continued.

The singularity of these results led to much incredulity as to

their authenticity, and on this account the experiments were often

and carefully repeated; and there can now be no doubt that the

virgin Aphis reproduces her kind, a phenomenon which may be

continued almost indefinitely, ending finally in the appearance of

individuals of distinct male and female sex, which lay the founda-

tion of new colonies in the manner just describedg.

The question arises, what interpretation is to be put upon these

almost anomalous phenomena? Many explanations have been

offered by various naturalists and physiologists, but most of them

have been as unsatisfactory as they have been forced, and were

admissible only by the acceptance in physiology of quite new

features.

As the criticism I intend to offer upon some of these opinions

will be better understood after the detail of my own researches,

I will reserve their future notice until the concluding part of this

paper.

My observations were made upon one of the largest species of

Aphis with which I am acquainted, the Aphis Car ye of Har-

ris||. While in Georgia, this last spring, it was my good fortune

that myriads of these destroyers appeared on a hickory which

grew near the house in which [ lived. The number of broods on

this tree did not exceed three, for with the third series their num-

bers were so great that their source of subsistence failed and they

gradually disappeared from starvation. The individuals of each

* Traité d’Insectologie, ou Observations sur les Pucerons, 1745.

if Mém. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. xii. p. 126.

~ Germar’s Magaz. d. Entomol., 1812.

§ For details of experiments by which Bonnet’s original results were

verified, see Réaumur, Mémoires, i ii. Mém. 9 and 1], and vi. Mém. 13.

Also, DeGeer, Mémoires, 11. ch. 2, 3. Curtis, Trans. Linn. Soe. vi.; Philos.

Trans. 1771. Sauvages, Journ. de Physique, 1. Dutrochet, Mémoires, ii.

p. 442. See also the more modern writers, and especially Kirby and Spence,

Introduction to Entomology, iv. p. 161.

|| A Treatise on some of the Insects of New England which are injurious

to Vegetation, 2nd ed. 1852, p. 208. As Dr. Harris says, it is probably

Lachnus of Iliger (Cinara of Curtis).

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 83

brood were, throughout, of the producing kind, no males having

been found upon the closest search; they were all, moreover,

winged ; and those few that were seen without these appendages

appear to have lost them by accident. I mention this fact espe-

cially, smee it has been supposed by naturalists that the females

were always wingless, and therefore that the winged individuals,

or the males, appeared only in the autumn*.

The first brood, upon their appearance from their winter hiding-

places, were of mature size, and I found in them the developing

germs of the second brood quite far advanced. On this account

it was the embryology of the third series or brood alone that I

was able to trace in these observations.

A few days after the appearance of these insects, the indivi-

duals of second brood (B), still within their parents (A), had

reached two-thirds of their mature size. At this time the arches

of the segments of the embryo had begun to close on the back,

and the various external appendages of the insect to appear pro-

minently ; the alimentary canal had been more or less completely

formed, although distinct abdominal organs of any kind belonging

to the digestive system were not very prominent. At this period,

and while the individuals of generation B are not only in the

abdomen of their parent A, but are also enclosed, each, in its

primitive egg-like capsule,—at this time, I repeat, appear the first

traces of the germs of the third brood (C).

These first traces consist of small egg-like bodies arranged two,

three, or four in a row, and attached in the abdomen at the locality

where the ovaries are situated in the oviparous forms of these ani-

nials.

These egg-like bodies consisted either of single nucleated cells,

of = 5pth of an inch in diameter, or a small number of such cells

enclosed ina simple sac. These are the germs of the third gene-

ration; they increase with the development of the embryo in which

they have been formed, and this increase of size takes place,

not by a segmentation of the primitive cells, but by the endo-

genous formation of new cells. After this increase has gone on

for a certain time, these egg-like bodies appear like little oval bags

of cells—all these component cells being of the same size and

shape, there being no cell which is larger and more prominent

than the rest, and which could be comparable to a germinative

vesicle. While these germs are thus constituted, the formation

of new ones is continually taking place. This occurs by a kind

* See Westwood, An Introduction to the modern Classification of In-

sects, &c. London, 1839, i. p. 438 ; but especially Owen, Partheno-

genesis, &c., p. 23, note, and p. 59, note, where he says, “ Many of the

virgin viviparous Aphides acquire wings, but never perfect the generative

organs |”

84 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

of constriction-process of the first germs, one of their ends beg

pinched off, as it were, and in this way what was a single sac,

is changed into two which are attached in a moniliform manner.

The new germ thus formed may consist of even a single cell

only, as I have often seen, but it (the germ) soon attaims a more

uniform size by the endogenous formation of new cells within

the sac by which it is enclosed. In this way the germs are mul-

tiplied to a considerable number, the nutritive material for their

growth bemg apparently a fatty liquid with which they are bathed,

contained in the abdomen, and which is thence derived from the

abdomen of the first parent.

When these germs have reached the size of .1,th of an inch in

diameter, there appears on each, near one end, a yellowish vitel-

lus Jooking mass or spot, which is composed ‘of large yellowish

cells, which in size and general aspect are different from those

constituting the germ proper. This yellow mass increases pari

passu with the germ, and at last lies like a cloud over and con-

eealing one of its poles. I would also msist on the poit that it

does not extend itself gradually over the whole germ-mass, and

is therefore quite unlike a true germinative vesicle or a prolige-

vous disc. When the egg-like germs have attained the size of

~#oth of an inch, there distinctly appears the sketching or mark-

ing out of the future animal. ‘This sketching consists at first of

delicately-marked retreatings of the cells here and there, but

which soon become more prominent from furrows, and at last the

whole form of the embryo stands boldly out. As the whole idea

and form of the insect is thus moulded out of a mass of cells,

it is evident that the separate parts which then appear, such as

the arches of the segments, the extremities and the oval appa-

ratus, consist at first only of rows of simple cells. This pomt is

here beautifully prominent, and nowhere have I observed finer

illustrations of the cell-constitution of developing forms.

The development thus proceeding, each part of the dermo-

skeleton becomes more and more distinct, and the increase of size

of the whole is attained by the constant development of new cells.

During this time, the yellow vitellus-looking mass, situated at one

of the poles of the embryo, has not changed its place; it has in-

creased somewhat in size, but otherwise appears the same. When

the development has proceeded somewhat further, and the embryo

is pretty well formed, the arches of the segments, which have

hitherto remained gapingly open, appear to close together on the

back, thereby enclosing this vitellus-looking mass within the ab-

dominal cavity.

It is this same vitelloid mass thus enclosed that furnishes the

nutritive material for the development of new germs which would

be those of the fourth brood, or D; this development of germs

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides, 85

here commences with the closing up of the abdominal cavity,

and the same processes which we have just described are again

repeated.

The details of the development subsequent to this point are

like those of the development of ordinary insects or of the Ar-

ticulata in general; and although this ovoid germ has at no time

the structural peculiarities of a true ovum—such as a real vitellus,

a germinative vesicle and germinative dot; yet, if we allow a

little latitude m our comparison, and regard the vitellus-looking

mass as the mucous, and the germ-mass proper as the serous fold

of the germinating tissue, as in true eggs—if, I repeat, we can

admit this comparison of parts, then the analogy of development

between these germs and true eggs of insects may be traced in

considerable detail.

This comparison I have been inclined to admit at least in part,

from the striking resemblance of these developing forms at cer-

tain stages, with the embryological forms of spiders as they have

been figured by Herold* and as I have myself traced them.

When, in spiders, the serous fold of the germinating tissue has

extended so as to cover two-thirds of the developing form, leaving

the vitellmme mass on the dorsal surface near one of the poles,

the whole embryo quite resembles that of a developing Aphis

just before the arches of the segments close up on the back.

With this view of the relative parts of the germ, the following

would be the details of the development of the different systems,

and in the noticing of which I shall follow Kolliker+.

1. The germinating tissue consists of two parts; a serous and

mucous fold.

2. The abdominal plates arise from the serous fold, sprout out

towards the vitelloid mass, pass over it and unite on the dorsal

surface of the future animal; on the opposite side are formed

plates which do not unite, but are formed into the hind legs.

3. The wings are the lateral limbs.

4. The first traces of the abdominal column appear in the

chain of abdominal muscles situated between the nerves and the

intestinal canal.

5. The nervous system in all its parts arises from the serous

fold, as well also as the organs of sense.

6. The mucous fold, or the vitellus-looking mass, serves no pur-

pose in the formation until the closing in of the visceral plates.

7. Thus enclosed in the abdominal cavity, it is not transformed

* De Generatione Aranearum in ovo. Marbourg, 1824.

+ Observationes de prima Insectorum genesi adjecta Articulatorum evo-

lutionis cum Vertebratorum comparatione. Diss. Inaug. Ser. Alb. Kolliker.

Turin, 1812. A work replete with facts and mterestmg suggestions.

86 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

directly into the intestinal canal, but simply furnishes the material

from which the component cells of the said canal and its hepatic

diverticula are formed. It also furnishes the material from which

the new germs are formed, as already shown.

8. The heart is formed on the dorsal aspect between the mucous

and serous folds. In this way the details of development closely

correspond with those of the embryology of the other Articulata

which I have studied ; and the subject is all the more interesting,

as the germ-masses, from which such development occurs, in no

way and at no time structurally resemble true eggs.

When the embryo is ready to burst from its developing capsule

and make its escape from the abdomen of its parent, it is about

;i;th of an inch in length, or more than eight times the size of

the germ at the time when the first traces of development were

seen. From this it is evident that, even admitting that these

germ-masses are true eggs, the conditions of development are quite

different from those of the truly viviparous animals; such as for

instance in Musca, Anthomyia, Sarcophaga, Tachina, Dexia, Mil-

togramma, and others among Dipterous insects* ; or in the vivi-

parous reptiles,—for in all these cases of ordinary viviparity, the

egg is simply hatched in the body instead of out of it. The egg,

moreover, is formed exactly in the same way as though it was to

be deposited, and its vitellus contains all the nutritive material

required for the development of the egg until the coming forth

of the new individual. The abdomen of the mother serves only

as a proper nidus or imcubatory pouch for its full development.

This is true of all the ovo-viviparous animals whatsoevert.

With the viviparous Aphides, on the contrary, the developing

germ derives its nutritive material from the fatty liquid in which

it is bathed, and which fills the abdomen of the parent{. The

conditions of development here therefore are more like those in

Mammalia, and the whole animal may, in one sense, be regarded

as an individualized uterus filled with germs, for the digestive

canal, with its appendages, seems to serve only as a kind of

laboratory for the conversion of the succulent fluids which the

animal extracts from the tree on which it lives, into this fatty

* See Siebold in Froriep’s Neue Notiz. ii. p. 337, and in Wiegmann’s

Arch. 1838, 1. p. 197; also his Observat. queed. Entom. &c., p. 18.

+ It is true that in the Scorpionide the eggs are developed in the ovary,

but there is no reason to suppose that the conditions are here different

from those of the viviparous Diptera. In Oribates, also, the eggs are de-

veloped in a kind of uterus situated directly above the ovipositor, but this

appears to be only an incubatory pouch.

{ This fatty matter forms beautiful crystals of margarine, and the crystal-

lization may easily be seen to take place. The forms exactly resemble those

given by Robin and Verdeil, Traité de Chim. Anat. et Physiol. pl. 38.

fig. 2h. Paris, 1853.

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 87

liquid from which the increase and development of the germs

take place.

When the young animal has reached its ful] development as

an embryo, it bursts from its encasement and appears to escape

from the abdomen of its parent through a small opening (porus

genitalis) situated just above the anus. In the species under con-

sideration it generally remains clinging on the back of the parent

until its external parts are dry and it is able to begin life for itself.

Each parent here produces from eight to twelve individuals, and

if this rapid increase is continued undisturbed, through seven to

nine broods, we cannot wonder at the countless numbers which

appear from so few original individuals *.

Such are the details of the embryological development of the

so-called viviparous Aphides, as far as I have enjoyed opportu-

nities for their study. We will now refer for a moment to the

special points which have here been made out. In the first place,

it is evident that the germs which develope these forms are not true

eggs. They have none of the structural characteristics of eggs,

such as a vitellus, a germinative vesicle and dot; on the other

hand, they are, at first, simple collections, in oval masses, of nu-

cleated cells. Then again, they receive no special fecundating

power from the male, as is the necessary preliminary condition of

all true eggs; and, furthermore, the appearance of the new indi-

vidual is not preceded by the phenomena of segmentation, as

also is the case with all true eggs. Therefore their primitive

formation, their development, and the preparatory changes they

undergo for the evolution of the new individual, are all different

from those of real ovat.

Another point is, these viviparous individuals have no proper

ovaries and oviducts. Distinct organs of this kind I have never

been able to make out. The germs are situated in moniliform

rows, like the successive joints of confervoid plants, and are not

enclosed in a special tube. These rows of germs commence,

each, by a single germ-mass which sprouts from the inner surface

of the animal, and which increases in length and in the number

* Réaumur has shown that in these animals the rate of increase is so

great, that in five generations or broods only one Aphis may be the proge-

nitor of five billion nme hundred and four million nine hundred thousand

(5,904,900,000) descendants ; we may well ask, what would be the number

of descendants where the broods were extended to eleven!!—See Kirby

and Spence, Introduction to Entomology, i. p. 175.

+ Milne-Edwards thinks he has found true ova and ovaries in the vivi-

parous forms of these animals. ( Quoted by Dr. Carpenter in Brit. and For.

Med. Chir. Rev. 1849, iv. p. 443.) I think he must have been deceived,

as I was at first, by the general appearances, which, unless carefully ex-

amined, closely resemble those of true oviparous individuals.

88 Dry. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

of its component parts from the successive formation of new

germs by a constriction- process as already mentioned. Moreover,

these rows of germs, which, at one period, closely resemble in

general form the ovaries of some true insects, are not continuous

with any uterine or other female organ, and therefore do not

at all communicate directly with the external world. On the

other hand, they are simply attached to the inner surface of the

animal, and their component germs are detached into the abdo-

minal cavity as fast as they are developed, and then escape out-

wards through a porus genitalis, exactly as is the case with

the eggs of fishes*. Here, then, comes the important question,

What interpretation shall we put upon these reproductive parts—

these moniliform rows of germs? Ignoring all existing special

theories relating to reproduetion, the observing physiologist would

be left no alternative but to regard them as buds, true gemme,

which sprout from the mner surface of the Aphis, exactly like the

buds from the external skin of a Polype F.

Before proceeding to a discussion of the relations of this im-

portant conclusion to whieh we have just arrived, it may be well

to refer to the views of others upon the exact signification of

these singular reproductive phenomena.

Those old entomologists, such as Bonnet, Réaumur, DeGeer,

&c., who were the first to observe, besides verifying beyond all

doubt, these peculiar phenomena, all believed that each brood

constitutes a separate generation, and that the reproduction takes

place by true ova, as in the common generative act of other

msects. This wide deviation from the ordinary course of nature,

as it seemed to them, they attempted to explain and reconcile by

various theories. Thus Réaumurt affirmed that these viviparous

individuals were androgynous ; and, in later times, Léon Dufour §,

who knew too well the anatomical structures of insects to believe

with Réaumur that they could be hermaphrodites, referred these

phzenomena to spontaneous or equivocal generation.

Morrem ||, who made somewhat extended researches on the

* These observations of mine on the special anatomy of the reproductive

parts of viviparous Aphides agree with those of Siebold, who studied the

subject with much care several years since. See Froriep’s Neue Not. xii.

. 308. Siebold, however, regarded them as true ovaries and oviducts, but

without any of the usual appendages which are found im the true oviparous

Aphides.

+ I would insist upon this wide and important distinction between buds

and ova. The structure and conditions of all ova are the same, and there

is no passage between them and buds. But this point will be enlarged

upon hereafter.

t Loc. cit. Mémoires.

§ Recherches Anat. et Physiol. sur les Hémiptéres. Paris, 1833.

| Anat. de P Aphis persice, in the Amn. d. Se. Nat. v. 1856, p. 90.

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 89

anatomy of Aphis persice, and especially of its generative organs,

advanced the novel theory, that these broods were developed in

the body of the virgin parent, by a previously organized tissue

becoming individualized and assuming an independent life, ex-

actly, as he believed, to be the case with Entozoa. To each and

all of these views, it scarcely need be said that they would be

wholly inadmissible according to the present established doctrines

of physiological science, even had we no directly controverting

observations.

But there are other explanations or views which deserve more

attention. The first of these is that advanced by Kirby and

Spence*. According to them, “One conjunction of the sexes

suffices for the impregnation of all the females that in a succession

of generations spring from that union.” In support of the rea-

sonableness of this hypothesis, they quote several instances which

they regard as of analogous character; thus, they say in regard

to the hive-bee, that “a single intercourse with the male fertilizes

all the eggs that are laid for the space of two years.”

In this connection should be mentioned the similar hypothesis

advanced for a like purpose by Jourdan}. According to him

many Lepidoptera lay fertile eggs when completely isolated from

the males: such are, Huprepsia casta, Episema ceruleocephala,

Gastropacha potatoria, G. quercifolia and G. pini, Sphine ligus-

tri, Smerinthus populi, and Bombya querci.

But all these cases have really no strict analogy with that of

the Aphides in question; for there is not, as with these last, a

succession of innately fertile individuals, but only females which

are capable of producing several broods from a single coitus, or

after having been long removed from the males, which may even

then be dead{. Late researehes upon the minute anatomy of

the generative organs of insects have furnished results by which

these phenomena, seemingly strange at first, can be explained.

All these insects which are thus capable of laying fecundated eggs

* Tntroduction to Entomology, iv. p. 161.

+ Manuel de Physiologie, par J. Miiller, Trad. de l’Allemand, ete. par

A. J. L. Jourdan. Deux. éd. rev. et annot., par E. Littré, ui. p. 599,

note.

{ Siebold has made observations upon allied pheenomena occurring in the

Psychidee, which are of no little interest. He has shown that in the genera

Psyche and Fumea, the alleged reproduction, sine Lucina, is unfounded—

these insects having well-formed internal genital organs, and the male bemg

adapted to impregnate the female while the latter is in her case. But in

the genus Taleporia, Siebold has shown that there is propagation sine con-

eubitu, exactly as occurs with the ApIindes. See Ueber die Fortpflanzung

der Psyche: Ein Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der Schmetterlinge, in Siebold

and Kolliker’s Zeitsch. 1. 1849, p. 93: but, for his last researches on Tale-

poria, see his Bericht ib. d. entomol. Arbeiten d. schles. Gesellsch. im J.

1850; or its English transl. in the Trans. of the Ent. Soc. N.S. 1. p. 234,

90 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

again and again after the first impregnation, have a receptaculum

seminis connecting with the oviduct, in which the semen is

deposited during coition, and where it may be preserved without

losing its vitalizing power for several months*. Thus, by this

provision, the males, having copulated with the females in the

autumn, may immediately die, while these last, hibernating, pro-

duce in the spring fertile ova; and in the instance of the Bombus

americana, such a coition suffices for all the three broods which

are produced the ensuing summer.

Another explanation of these curious phenomena, and which

has attracted some attention, as well from its smgularity as from

the eminence of its propounder, is that of Owen, advanced in his

Hunterian Lectures in 18437.

He affirms that the larval Aphides are productive in virtue of

the successive continuation from brood to brood of a portion of

the primitively fertilized germ, and which material product or

leaven is not exhausted until nine to eleven generations. I will

quote his own language: “ In the Aphides the corresponding vi-

telline cells retain their share of the fecundating principle (which

was diffused through the parent egg by the alternating, fissipa-

rous, liquefactive, and assimilative processes) in so potent a degree,

that a certain growth and nutritive vigour in the insect suffice to

set on foot in the ovarian, nucleated cells, a repetition of the fissi-

parous and assimilative process, by which they transform them-

selves in their turn into productive insects ; and the fecundating

force is not exhausted by such successive subdivision until a 7th,

9th, or 11th generation.” This same doctrine, the successive

inheritance of a portion of the primary germ-mass from brood to

brood, and by means of which the fertile germs are continued,

—this doctrine, I say, is repeated im full in this author’s work on

Parthenogenesis, and I will here quote one sentence, not only in

illustration of this, but to show how different his own observa-

tions on the development of these animals are from mine, just

described. He says, ‘‘ One sees such portion of the germ-mass

* For many details on this subject of the receptaculum seminis, see

Siebold, Miiller’s Arch. 1837, p. 392; also in Wiegmann’s Arch. 1839, i.

p- 107 (Vespa), and in Germar’s Zeitsch. 11. (1840) p. 442 (Culex). See also

Stein, Vergleich. Anat. &e. 1847, p. 96,112. I cannot but believe that the

anomalous reproductive conditions of the Cynipidee will, at last, have a solu-

tion equally satisfactory. See Hartig, Germar’s Zeitsch. 11. p. 178, and iv.

». 395. See also Siebold and Stannius’s Comparative Anatomy, transl. i.

sect. 348, notes 1 & 4.

+ Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Inverte-

brate Animals, &c. London, 1843, p. 233. This explanation is lately in-

sisted upon (strange to relate) in his recent work “On Parthenogenesis, or

the successive production of procreating individuals from a single ovum.”

London, 1849.

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 91

taken into the semitransparent body of the embryo Aphis, like

the remnant of the yolk im the chick. I at first thought it was

about to be enclosed in the alimentary canal, but it was not so.

As the embryo grows, it assumes the position of the ovarium, and

becomes divided into oval masses and enclosed by the filamentary

extremities of the eight oviducts. Individual development 1s

checked and arrested at the apterous larval condition. It is

plain, therefore, that the essential condition of the development

of another embryo in this larva is the retention of part of the

progeny of the primary impregnated germ-cell.” (p. 70.)

This view of Owen, so mgeniously advanced, and which he

has made subservient for the chief support of his new doctrine of

Parthenogenesis, is mdeed plausible and seems at first satisfac-

tory; but, as I hope to show, it will not bear analysis.

In the first place, it is evident that Owen does not recognise

any physiological difference between a bud and an ovum; this is

clear from what he remarks in the first quotation, but im his work

on Parthenogenesis he has said so in as many words. “ The

growth by cell-multiplication producing a bud, instead of being

altogether distinct from the growth by cell-multiplication im an

egg, is essentially the same kind of growth or developmental

process.” (p. 45.)

Here is a fundamental error, which, if not removed, will obscure

all our views of the physiology of reproduction. I have already

insisted upon the necessity of this broad distinction between

these two forms,—a necessity based not only upon differences

of anatomical constitution, but also upon physiological signi-

fication. An Ovum is the exclusive product of an individual of

the female sex, and is always formed in a special organ called the

ovary. It is the particular potential representative of the female,

and has its ulterior development only from its conjunction with

a corresponding element of the opposite or male sex ; and zoology

presents no instance where there is development from eggs, unless

these conditions of the two sexes are fully carried out.

A Bud, on the other hand, is simply an offshoot from the form

on which it rests, a portion of the animal capable of individual

development. It sustains, therefore, no relations to sex, and, in

truth, is widely separated in its ulterior signification from that

cycle of processes conceived in a true oviparous reproduction.

All physiologists who have carefully studied embryological and

developmental processes must feel the correctness and importance

of this distinction, which hes in realities and not in words.

It is true, that a bud and an ovum are composed each of the

same elements,—-simple nucleated cells; but im one, these cells

are simply in a mass, while in the other, they have, ‘throughout

the animal kingdom, high or low, a definite and invariable ar-

92 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

rangement. Then again as to the constitution of each and both

beg, on the whole, of nucleated cells, it may be said, that it

could hardly be conceived to be otherwise, for nucleated cells are

the elementary components of all functional organized forms ;

and it may be added, moreover, that he knows little of the

highest physiology who has not learned that widely different

teleological significations may be concealed beneath isomorphic

animal forms.

I have thus dwelt rather lengthily upon this poimt because I

think it is a vital one in our subject, and the possession of clear

ideas thereon will be found singularly conducive to our correct

appreciation of the whole class of anomalous phenomena under

discussion. But we will revert to the subject of Owen’s hypo-

thesis.

As to the chief point in this hypothesis, the continuation of

the primary germ-mass as a leaven, from brood to brood, it re-

quires but httle thought to perceive that it is physically impossible.

I would first allude to Owen’s statement, quoted above, that a

portion of the germ-mass is taken into the abdomen of the em-

bryo Aphis, and, as he thinks, assumes, without any change, the

position of the ovarium. By this he refers, undoubtedly, to the

vitellus-looking mass I have described in my observations, and

according to which, also, it appeared to serve only as the nutritive

material out of which the digestive organs and the germs are

formed. Moreover, I feel quite sure that the germ-cells are new

cells formed in the abdomen, and not those derived from the

parent.

But the point I wish to enforce is, that even admitting that

individuals B may contain an actual residue of mdividuals A, it

is clearly evident that this succession must stop with brood B;

for these residual germ-cells which compose B in its earliest con-

dition are lost in the developmental processes, and the germs of

individuals C, which are found in B, are each, primarily, nucle-

ated cells formed de novo, as I have observed and above described.

With these observed conditions of development, it is impussible

for the individuals of the successive broods to inherit the original

spermatic force in the continuation of the original cells.

The hypothesis of Owen, therefore, plausible and ingenious as

it may seem, does not appear to me to accord either with observed

facts, or with the soundest physiology of the reproductive pro-

cesses. I may here remark also, that his doctrine of Partheno-

genesis, based as it 1s upon the conditions of the hypothesis in

question, cannot, as such, be sustained, for the same reasons, and

all its phenomena would appear to find their solution either m

Steenstrup’s doctrine of “ Alternation of Generations,” so-called,

or in the conditions of true gemmiparity,—admitting, provision-

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 98

ally, that Steenstrup’s doctrine and gemmiparity include really

different physiological conditions.

But the most important explanation advanced, and the last

which I shall notice, is that offered by Steenstrup* in his doctrine

of the “ Alternation of Generations,’ and of which it forms a

chief support. The details of this peculiar doctrine of Steen-

strup I need not here furnish; they are well known to all physio-

logical anatomists. Its features, however, may be expressed in a

formula-like manner. Individuals A produce true fecundated

eges, from which are hatched individuals B, which are unlike

their parents in all zoological respects, but in which are developed

spontaneously and without any reference to sex, germs which ulti-

mately become individuals like A, and so the cycle of development

is completed. These intermediate individuals, B, Steenstrup has

termed nurses (Amnen), and he regards them as distinct animals

subservient for a special end; he therefore considers that B

constitutes a real generation.

Instances of such pheenomena are found in the lower orders of

the animal kingdom—Polyps, Acalephs and Worms ; and late re-

search has shown that they are more or less common throughout

the whole of the Invertebrata.

The difference between alternation of generation and metamor-

phosis is too marked to require illustration ; in the latter there is

the same individual throughout, and the developmental processes,

although concealed beneath different exteriors, are regular and

normal; with the former, however, this chain of development is

broken by one form being developed im another, this intermediate

form serving as a stepping-stone for a higher and ulterior deve-

lopment. Another important pot in this alternate reproduction,

is, that in each new change some real progress is made—the

nursing-form being manifestly inferior to the individual to which

it gives rise.

Steenstrup regards the Aphides as furnishing the most perfect

examples known of nursing individuals, and, on the whole, as con-

stituting typical illustrations of the doctrine he has advanced +.

But if this doctrine implies conditions other than those which

belong to true gemmiparity, it does not appear to me that it has

any support in the phenomena in question of the Aphides. And

although I am inclined to believe, as I shall soon show, that all

these phenomena, essentially, may be of the same nature, yet there

can be no doubt that the manifestations are here somewhat pecu-

* On the Alternation of Generations, or the Propagation and Develop-

ment of Animals through Alternate Generations ; a peculiar form of fostering

the young in the lower classes of Animals. Transl. by the Ray Society.

London, 1845, passim.

t+ See Steenstrup, Joc. cit. p. 112.

94 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

liar. With the Aphides there is no real morphological progress

made in each brood, for the viviparous individuals are, zoologically,

as perfect in every way as those which are oviparous, except in

their want of true sexual generative organs. I have shown that,

in the one species here described, they had well-developed wings

like the true sexual individuals. Moreover, each brood, from the

first to the last inclusive, is merely a repetition of the same.

But these conditions are external and ceconomical, and, instead of

offering these prominent examples as evidence against the validity

of Steenstrup’s doctrine, I would rather present them as broadly

indicating that, after all, this doctrine in question involves no

conditions excepting those belonging to a modified form of gem-

miparity. All the instances of Polyps, Acalephs, Worms, Insects,

&e., would then be classed in the same category, and the va-

riations in manifestation would belong rather to the cecono-

mical relations of the animal, than to any intrinsic difference of

physiological process. Thus the Distoma-nurses, mstead of being

developed to a condition resembling at all their parent, remain

persistent on a low form, and not only is their whole zoological

character undeveloped, but they also experience morphological

changes from the developmental process which immediately go on

within them. All this is in perfect keeping with their ceconomy

as animals, for the low order of their conditions of life does not

necessitate a higher and more truly zoological form of these nurses

from which are to be developed the true animals; were it other-

wise, I cannot but believe that both the nurses and the grand-

nurse of Distoma would quite resemble the original animals.

In the case of the Aphides, the ceconomical conditions are dif-

ferent, and finely illustrate this point.

The Aphis-nurse, in virtue of its very typical structure as an

insect, must live under higher conditions, and so its development,

zoologically, proceeds to a corresponding point; this point is

where it, as an insect and as an Aphis, can furnish the nutritive

material for the development of its endogenous germs.

Herein, then, would appear to consist the prominent morpho-

logical differences observed in this category of phenomena, and

I need not labour further to show that they are irrelevant of the

primary essential conditions of these curious processes.

Such appears to me to be the highest, both physiological and

zoological, interpretation that can be advanced for these phzeno-

mena which Steenstrup has so ingeniously collected and collated ;

and to advance the view that these intermediate individuals or

nurses are not intrinsically and zoologically the same as their

parents, but furnish examples of how dissimilar animals may arise

from a common stock—to put forth this view, I say, is to advo-

cate a doctrine in physiology as mischievous as it is deeply

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 95

erroneous. I think, therefore, that the doctrine of Steenstrup

may prove to be unfounded as far as it would involve, intrinsically,

new phenomena in the processes of reproduction ; and, as I have

said on a preceding page, all its conditions may find their illus-

tration and solution in the various phases of gemmiparity*.

If in this discussion of some of the highest relations of physio-

logy, we have not wandered too far from our subject proper which

we have thereby sought to illustrate indirectly, we will revert to

the thread of its discourse for a few concluding remarks.

The final question now is, what is the legitimate imterpretation

to be put upon the reproductive phenomena of the Aphides we

have described? My answer to this has been anticipated in the

foregoing remarks. I regard the whole as constituting only a

rather anomalous form of gemmiparity. As already shown, the

viviparous Aphides are sexless; they are not females, for they

have no proper female organs, no ovaries and oviducts. These

Viviparous individuals therefore are simply gemmiparous, and

the budding is here internal instead of external as in the Polyps

and Acalephs; it moreover takes on some of the morphological

peculiarities of oviparity; but all these dissimilar conditions are

ceconomical and extrinsic, and do not touch the intrinsic nature

of the processes concerned therein.

Viewed in this way, the different broods of Aphides cannot be

said to constitute as many true generations, any more than the

different branches of a tree can be said to constitute as many

trees; on the other hand, the whole suite from the first to the

last constitute but a single true generation. I would insist upon

this point as illustrative of the distinction to be drawn between

sexual and gemmiparous reproduction. Morphologically, they

have, it is true, many points of close resemblance ; but there is a

grand physiological difference, the true perception of which is

deeply connected with our highest appreciation of individual ani-

mal lifet. A true generation must be regarded as resulting only

from the conjugation of two opposite sexes—from a sexual pro-

* This statement is made perhaps more strongly and exclusively than the

present state of our knowledge would warrant, but I throw it out much in

a suggestive way. There is no subject in physiology more interesting and

comprehensive than that of Gemmation; the important question now is,—

does it, as an individual process, embrace all the categories of phenomena

treated by Lovén, Steenstrup, &c., these phenomena varying extrinsically,

according to ceconomical conditions, or do they (the phenomena) imply

something beyond and dissimilar from gemmation ?

+ In this view, as well as in several others herein discussed, I am pleased

to say that I have the support of so learned a physiologist as Dr. Carpenter.

See his Review “ On the Development and Metamorphoses of Zoophytes,”

m the Brit. and Foreign Med. Chir. Rev. 1848,i. p. 183; and “On Repro-

duction and Repair,” in ibid. 1849, ii. p. 419.

96 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Vivipurous Aphides.

cess in which the potential representations of two individuals are

united for the elimination of one germ. This germ-power may

be extended by gemmation or by fission, but it can be formed

only by the act of generation, and its play of extension and pro-

longation by budding, or by division, must always be within a

certain cycle, and this cycie is recommenced by the new act of

the conjugation again of the sexes.

In this way, the dignity of the ovum as the primordium of all

true individuality is maintained ; and the axiom of Harvey, omne

vivum ex ovo, stands as golden in physiology. The buds may

put on the dress and the forms of the ovum, but these resem-

blances are extrinsic, and in fact only an inheritance from their

great predecessor.

These phenomena, thus interpreted, furnish an excellent key

to many others which have long been regarded as anomalous, in

the history of development.

I refer here to the so-called hibernating eggs (Wintereier) which

are found in many Invertebrates. These I have not seen, but

they have been carefully described by several very trustworthy

observers. These so-called eggs consist of oval masses or cells

invested with a capsule, but im which no germinative vesicle and

dot have ever been seen. Structurally, therefore, they do not

resemble eggs, and it is from their form and ulterior development

only that they have received this name. Moreover, they sustain

none of the usual relations of eggs to the sexual organs, and, as

far as I am aware, no one has witnessed their development in the

ovaries. ‘hese bodies have been observed in Hydatina* and

Notommatat among the Infusoria; in Lacinulariat among the

Rotatoria; and in Daphnia§ among the Crustacea. In all these

instances they hatch without the aid of the male, the existence of

which sex was once doubted from its unfrequent appearance.

Now I regard these hibernating eggs as merely egg-like buds

exactly corresponding to the germs of the viviparous Aphides.

In other words, there are in the animals I have just mentioned,

certain individuals which reproduce by buds which are developed

under rather anomalous conditions ; and I will add in conclusion,

* Ehrenberg, Die Infusionsthierchen, p. 413.

+ Dalrymple, Philos. Trans. 1849, p. 340.

t Huxley, Quarterly Journ. Mier. Se. 1852, 1. p. 13.

§ Miiller, Entomostraca, p. 84. tab. 11]..fig. 9-11, tab. 12. fig. 5. Also,

Ramdohr, Beitrage zur Naturgesch. eimger deutschen Monokulus-Arten,

1805, p. 28; Strauss, Mém. sur les Daphnia, in the Mém. du Mus. d’Hist.

Nat. v. p. 413. pl. 29; Jurine, Histoire des Monocles, 1820, p. 120. pl. 11.

fig. 1-4. Jurine calls these aggregated eggs ‘“‘ La maladie de la selle.”

There is, moreover, reason to believe that these anomalous reproductive

conditions occur in nearly all the Entomostraca: see Siebold and Stannms’s

Comparative Anat., my transl. vol. i., my note under sect. 292, note 4.

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 97

that I suspect that this gemmiparous mode of reproduction will

be found to be far from uncommon among most of the Inverte-

brata, when our researches into the history of their development

shall have been more widely extended*.

P.S.—I regret that I should not have seen until now, when

this paper is concluded, the important writings of Leydig on the

subject under discussion. In his article “ EKimige Bemerkungen

uber die Entwickelung der Blattlause,” in Siebold and Kolhker’s

Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 1850, uu. p. 62, he speaks of his former

observations in the Isis, 1848, i. p. 184. These I have not seen,

neither also a work to which he refers, of J. Victor Carus

(Zu naheren Kenntniss des Generationswechsels, Leipzig, 1849).

Leydig, in his criticism of Carus’s views, expresses the opinion

that the development of the viviparous Aphides is, histologically,

like that of the Articulata in general. According to him, also,

the germ-bodies undergo processes corresponding to those of

impregnated eggs. These statements of Leydig, who is an ex-

cellent observer, have induced me recently to repeat my observa-

tions; but this afforded the same results as before, viz. that the

germ-bodies out of which are developed the viviparous Aphides

have no true histological identity with eggs.

P.S.+ Since the publication of this paper, I have enjoyed the

opportunity of making this series of investigations more complete,

by an examination of the terminal or last brood which appears

at the end of autumn.

This terminal brood has hitherto been considered, as far as |

am aware, to be composed exclusively of males and females, or,

in other words, of perfect imsects of both sexes. I was surprised,

therefore, on examining the internal organs of the non-winged

individuals, to find that many of these last were not females

* Notice may here be given of some curious observations, which Filippi

(Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. June 1852, p. 461) has furnished on the development of

the Pteromalide. A Pteromalus lives in the ova of Rhynchites betuleti ;

in each of these ova there is seen, soon after its deposit, a minute infusorial

animal, with a tail by which it moves briskly about among the vitelline

cells. It soon ceases to move, however, and in its interior appears a vesicle

which increases and changes into a larva which is that of Pieromalus; this

larva becomes a pupa, and, after eight or ten days, changes to the perfect

insect which escapes from the ovum. If these observations are verified, we

have here a case exactly like that of the Aphides, excepting that, lke the

Distoma, the intermediate budding form is very low, and takes on none of

the zvological peculiarities of the parent. But these statements need

corroboration, for they do not agree with the history of other species of

Pteromalus whose development is well known. See also the wonderful

gemmiparous phenomena related by Siebold of Gyrodactylus; Siebold

and Kolliker’s Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. i. 1849, p. 347.

+ Silliman’s Journal for March.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv.

“l

98 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

proper, but simply the ordinary gemmiparous form already de-

scribed. Moreover, so great was the similarity of appearance

between these two forms—true females and gemmiparous indivi-

duals—that they could be distinguished only by an examination

of their internal genitalia. Among the proper females there were,

besides those which were filled with eggs or had already depo-

sited them, other individuals in which the ovaries were but feebly

developed, or at least, in which no mature eggs had been formed.

An opportunity was thereby afforded me to examine the struc-

tural differences between the true ovaries and their quasi repre-

sentatives—the bud-like processes. The true ovaries had their

usual, well-known structure—multilocular tubes containmg nu-

cleated cells which are probably the undeveloped germs ; the

bud-like processes, on the other hand, consisted of a row of cell-

masses, oval and connected by a kind of peduncle, as described

in detail in the preceding paper. These wide differences have,

more than ever, persuaded me of the morphological dissimilarity

of these two kinds of reproducing parts in this animal. It seems

to me then that the real intrinsic difference between an ovum

and a bud lies as deep as the conditions of sex itself, notwith-

standing the latter often has, as in the present case, for mstance,

some of the morphological characteristics of the former.

The appearance of sexless, gemmiparous individuals in the

terminal brood would seem to indicate, moreover, that the con-

ditions which determine the appearance of individuals usually

exclusively male and female, are not, perhaps, referable to the

fact of this bemg the last brood, but rather to relations of warmth

and nutrition. This view is rendered more probable by the fact

of the variation in the number of broods between the first and

last, observed in the same species in different years—ranging

between seven, nine, eleven or more. Moreover, Kyber, as quoted

already in the ‘preceding paper, by nursing continually in a warm

room a collection of Aphis dianthi, keeping about them a sum-

mer temperature, succeeded in continuing uninterruptedly the

series of sexless or gemmiparous individuals for four years. There

are many other facts in insect life that dicate in like manner

some direct relation between temperature and nutriment, and

definite sexual development. The subject is as important as it

is interesting in physiology, and these very animals will, perhaps,

subserve the successful studyof the primary morphological cun-

ditions of sex.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Structure of the Shell of Alveolina. 99

VIIT.—On the true position of the Canaliferous Structure in the

Shell of Fossil Alveolina (D? Orbigny). By H.J.Cartnr, Esq.,

Assistant Surgeon, Bombay Establishment.

[With a Plate. }

In the description of Alveolina melo, given at p. 170. vol. xi. of

this Journal, I have stated, that the ‘ transverse parallel ridges ”

seen on the outside of the fossil correspond to the “ divisions,”

or rather partitions, in the interior of the chambers. D’Orbigny

also has stated, that the chambers in Alveolina are “ divided

into a great number of capillary cavities by partitions longitudinal

to the enroulement”’ (Koss. Foram. du Bassin Tert. de Vienne,

p- 143); and so most people would think, judging from the ex-

ternal appearance of the shell ; but when the interior is examined

by a section made through the longitudinal axis (PI. II. B. fig. 3),

then these divisions and this canaliferous or capillary structure

are seen to be confined to the external walls of the chambers, and

to be completely excluded from their interior.

The oversight has arisen from the last whorls of the shell

being in such close approximation with each other, that there

seems in most instances to be no space for the chambers left be-

tween them, and hence the appearance of the openings of the

capillary canals along the free border of the last-formed segment

could hardly be inferred to lead to anything but the chambers

themselves ; while the intervals between the transverse ridges,

too, would also lead to-the inference that the latter were so

many partitions dividing the chambers into as many cavities

arranged longitudinally with respect to the direction or enroule-

ment of the shell (figs. 3, 4).

It was only a few weeks since, however (although I had fre-

quently seen and even sketched it), that I recognized the true

position of this canaliferous structure, when cursorily examining

some specimens of Alveolina which had been presented to the

Asiatic Society of Bombay by Dr. Leith, and I was instantly

struck with its analogy in position and nature to the reticular

canaliferous structure in the spicular or marginal cord of Oper-

culina Arabica (Pl. IV. vol. x.).

The canals are about 1—400th of an inch square, and the

partitions which separate them about a third of this breadth

(fig. 3 6), sometimes much thinner. They appear to open by a

single row of apertures in the free edge of the last-formed seg-

ment of the shell, and from thence to be continued into the very

centre, following the spire and being confined to the walls of the

shell the whole way. On their course they dip inwards as they

100 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Structure of the Shell of Atveolina.

cross the grooves, which, like those on the surface of a melon,

divide the segments and offering a triangular space are filled up

by corresponding portions of the shell in the form of ribs (fig. 1 @).

Throngh each rib also there is a triangular canal (fig. 45 & 5 a),

which extends to either extremity of “the fossil, where again it

may have communicated with the exterior by a foramen or um-

bilical hole apparently in the latter (fig. 2a). Behind and also

internal to the triangular canal there appears to have been

another longitudinal channel of communication, formed by a

deficiency in the partitions of the canals at this part (fig. 4c &

5 5). Although the partitions generally appear to have been

continuous under the ribs, yet mm many instances they seem to

alternate, or nearly so, with the interspaces or canals in the ad-

joining segments. Whether there was any communication be-

tween the canals and the chambers (fig. 3 5) future investigation

must determine ; at present there appears to be no other outiet

for them ; and if this be the case with Alveolina, it may also be

the case in many other forms of Foramimifera. Of what use

then can the chambers be ?

Although I have mentioned holes, channels, canals, and ecavi-

ties in this fossil, yet in reality there is no such thing ; but from

their having been filled with transparent calc-spar they are

easily recognized, in contradistinction to the white amorphous

carbonate of ime which has replaced the shell itself.

The specimens of A/veolina in which I first noticed the posi-

tion of this canaliferous structure were, as before stated, pre-

sented to the Asiatic Society by Dr. Leith, who broke off the

portions of limestone contaiming them from rocks in the Bolan

Pass, between the towns of Dadur and Quetta.

They are associated, as in Scinde and Arabia, with papyra-

ceous Orbitolites (Cyclolina, D’Orbig.), and the white compact

limestone containing them is that which in this part of the world

is generally called “nummmulitic ;’ but in only one or two in-

stances have I seen Alveolina mixed with Nummulites, and then

only very sparsely scattered throughout the mass, though it is

quite possible that the opposite may be the case, for they must

be close together. The easiness, however, of mistaking Ordi-

tolites for Nummulites, in the rock, and the occurrence of Cyclo-

lina and Alveolina together im great abundance in the white com-

pact limestone of the south-east coast of Arabia (which I take to

be the same as that of Scinde and the Bolan Pass) far below the

position of the Nummulites, together with the existence of these

two fossils in the Chalk of Europe (D’Orbigny), induces me to

think, that much of the white limestone in the East is called

“nummulitic,” which will hereafter be found to be an equivalent

of the Chalk.

Mr, H. J. Carter on the Structure of the Shell of Alveolina. 101

I have also lately been so fortunate as to obtain a view of the

cells in the centre of one of these papyraceous Orbitoliles (Cyclo-

lina, D’Orbig.)—the doubly concave species—and I find that

they are arranged in concentric circles there, though apparently

not more than one deep. The greatest care therefore is neces-

sary in exposing them, for a rub too much or too little may

either destroy them altogether or entirely fail to bring them

into view. I mention this, because I had inferred, from the sub-

spiral arrangement of the cells in Orbitoides Prattii and Orbito-

lites Malabarica (Plates VIL. & XVI. vol. xi.), that this might be

the case throughout D’Orbigny’s order Cyclostégues ; but on

actual examination and subsequent reflection, I find that such

cannot be the case in (yclolina ; at the same time, the arrange-

ment of the cells being just like that of the divisions on an

engine-turned watch-case, to which Dr. Carpenter has so aptly

likened them in Orbitolites complanata, Lam. (Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soe. vol. vi. pt. 1. p. 24), I think this way of describing them

much more intelligible than by the use of the term “ concentric.”

The circles on the incrusted surface of Cyclolina are evidently

concentric ; they are in continuous lines ; but the arrangement of

the cells beneath the crust, though still seen to be concentric

under a high microscopic power, fails at first to strike the eye as

such from the greater prominence of the semi-gyrating lines,

which, flymg off from the centre, most faithfully represent the

appearance mentioned. :

I have measured the cells in the specimen in which I observed

this arrangement most satisfactorily, and find that those of the

centre are much smaller than those of the circumference ; the

former are 1-380th of an inch, and the latter 1-633rd of an

inch in diameter.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. B.

Fig. 1. Melonites spheroidea (Lam.), magnified four diameters: a, ribs ;

6, segments.

Fig. 2. Extremity of the same, magnified four diameters: a, central fora-

men or umbilical hole.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of the same through the centre, greatly but

proportionally magnified: a, a, chambers; 6, canals and _parti-

tions in the wall of the shell.

Fig. 4. Transverse section of the same through the centre, equally mag-

nified, &e.: a, spiral wall of the shell; 0, triangular canal of

the rib; ce, free space or chanuel behind and internal to the rib ;

d, d,d, chambers ; e, e, septa.

Fig. 5. Magnified view of a portion of the wall of the shell, to show—a, tri-

angular canal of rib ; 4, free space or channel behind and interval

to it; ¢, ¢, partitions of canaliferous structure.

Bombay, 14th April, 1854.

102 Messrs. Alder and Hancock on some new species

IX.—Notice of some new species of British Nudibranchiata.

By Josuua Atper and Atsany Hancock.

SEVERAL new species of Nudibranchiate Mollusca have occurred

to us during the last two or three years, descriptions of which

we had hoped before this to have published elsewhere. Unavoid-

able circumstances have delayed the publication ; and as some of

the species are the discoveries of friends, who have kindly placed

them in our hands for description, we consider it due to them as

well as to ourselves not to delay any longer the announcement

of these acquisitions to the British fauna, some of which are of

considerable interest.

Doris ZETLANDICA.

White : cloak with large, soft, conical, pomted, unequal tuber-

cles: dorsal tentacles linear : oral tentacles tubercular : branchial

plumes 6, bipmnate, retractile within a cavity. Length ths

of an inch,

A single specimen of this new Doris was found in Shetland by

Mr. Barlee in 1849. It differs from all the other British species

with retractile tentacles in the form of the tubercles; but the

most remarkable difference is in the character of the tongue,

which is covered with long, linear, subclavate spines, denticu-

lated on the inner margin.

Doris MILLEGRANA.

Yellow or orange ?: cloak covered with minute granular tuber-

cles: oral tentacles linear: branchial plumes 6, bipinnate, retrac-

tile within a cavity. Length 1} inch.

Two specimens of this Dori is, euch we do not find before de-

seribed, are preserved in Dr. Leach’s collection in the British

Museum. They were sent from Torbay by Mrs. Griffiths. The

species comes nearest to D. Johnstont in the character of the

tubercles, but differs from it in having only six plumes, which

do not form a distinct cup. The tongue resembles a good deal

that of D. tuberculata, having stout, smooth spines ; but in this

species five or six of the extreme lateral spmes are minutely pec-

tinated, which is not the case in D. tuberculata, nor in D. John-

stont, though in the latter the spines are also of two kinds. We

have been aware of the existence of these specimens in the Bri-

tish Museum for several years, but hoped before this to have

inet with the species in a living state. Having failed in domg

so, Dr. Gray has liberally allowed us to examine and describe it

from the spirit specimens. There can be no doubt of its distinet-

of British Nudibranchiata. 103

ness from D. tuberculata, with which it had been confounded by

Dr. Leach.

Doris PROXIMA.

Orange-yellow : cloak with stout elliptical tubercles: dorsal

tentacles subclavate: head furnished with a broad veil: no oral

tentacles: branchial plumes 11, simply pinnate, non-retractile.

Length } an inch.

This species has been sent us by Mr. Price of Birkenhead,

where it occurs not unfrequently within tide-marks, in the spring.

It bears great resemblance to Doris aspera, of which we at first

thought it might be a variety. A careful inspection, however,

shows some points of difference ; more especially in the shape of

the tubercles, which are elliptical and obtusely pointed in this

species, while in D. aspera they are rounded and flattish. An

examination of the tongue has set the matter at rest, as it is

decidedly different from that of D. aspera.

THECACERA CAPITATA.

White, freckled with greenish brown: tentacles retractile

within cavities: veil with two to four orange tubercles on each

side, and a row of orange tubercles between the tentacles : bran-

chial plumes 7, pinnate, tipped with orange: a stout branchial

lobe on each side also tipped with orange. Length } inch.

Dredged at St. Ives, Cornwall, by Mr. Barlee, to whom we

are indebted for specimens in spirits.

Ipatta ELEGANS, Leuckart.

Rose-coloured, freckled ; the processes orange-yellow : anterior

filaments 2 (one near the base of each tentacle): lateral filaments

numerous, irregular, the posterior ones obtuse, lobular: dorsal

filaments 5, three on the median line and two sublateral : bran-

chial plumes 18 (the anterior and posterior ones bifid) : foot mar-

gined with yellow. Length 12 inch.

We obtained specimens of this beautiful Jdalia by dredging off

Guernsey last summer. A species described in the Catalogue of

the Mollusca of Northumberland and Durham, which we referred

with doubt to I. elegans, we now propose to call J. Leachii. A

specimen of the latter is preserved in Dr. Leach’s collection in

the British Museum.

IDALIA PULCHELLA.

Body freckled with pale lilac: tentacles subclavate: anterior

filaments 4, set on an expanded pallial ridge : lateral filaments 5

or 6 on each side, the last large and bifid: branchial plumes 11

104. On some new species of British Nudibranchiata.

(the anterior one bifid), rather small, diminishing posteriorly.

Length ths of an inch.

This pretty species was dredged by My. Barlee at St. Ives in

the summer of 18538.

TRITONIA ALBA.

Transparent white, with opake-white transverse markings ;

rather depressed, smooth or very faintly tuberculated : branchize:

imperfectly bipinnate, 4 or 5 on each side, with intermediate

smaller ones, set on an expanded and waved pallial margin: veil

bilobed, with irregular digitations. Length 3 inch.

The character of the tongue has again’come to our aid in di-

stinguishing this species from the young of 7. Hombergii, to

which it bears great resemblance. In this species the lingual

spines have slender lateral denticles, while those of 7. Hombergit

are quite smooth. It occurs occasionally along with 7. plebeia,

on masses of Aleyonium digitatum brought in on the fishing lines,

at Cullercoats, Northumberland.

Eouts CARNEA.

Flesh-coloured, slender: branchize linear-conical, rose-coloured,

set m seven clusters : tentacles rather long, of equal length, the

dorsal pair dark olive-brown, paler above: oral pair whitish :

anterior angles of the foot much produced. Length 3 an inch.

A single specimen was dredged by Mrs. Wyatt of Torquay in

Salcombe Bay some years ago. We have not met with it ma

living state. The dentition of the tongue, as well as the cha-

racter and arrangement of the branchial papilla, show a relation-

ship between this species and E. alba.

Eouis GLAUCOIDES.

White, depressed: head small: tentacles small, smooth :

branchiz linear, white, with yellowish tips, and a narrow, pale

fulvous central gland, set in 11 pedunculated clusters: foot

broad, with the anterior angles acute, short. Length 3 an inch.

Under stones near low-water mark on the Isle of Herm near

Guernsey. This very curious Holis shows, in most of its cha-

racters, an approach to the genus Glaucus. One specimen only

was found.

EouLis PUSTULATA.

White, pellucid: branchie long, linear, obtuse, yellowish

orange, granulated with white, set in 9 or 10 rows: tentacles

shortish : anterior angles of the foot rounded. Length 4 inch.

We obtained two examples of this new species from the fishing

boats at Cullercoats. The granular character of the papille

distinguishes it from every other British species.

Mr. E, L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 105

EMBLETONIA PALLIDA.

Yellowish white, with a few black spots on the back : ten-

tacles shortish, approximating: oral lobes indistinct, united into a

semicircular veil: branchiz nearly linear, very pale orange, set in

4 or 5 rows on each side, two papillz in each row. Length 3),th

of an inch.

A specimen of this minute species, discovered by Mr. Price on

the shore at Birkenhead, was kindly sent us by that gentleman

in the spring of this year. It differs from the other British spe-

cies in having a double series of papille at the sides.

ANTIOPA HYALINA.

Pellucid, yellowish, with brown markings down the middle of

the back: branchiz elliptical, tuberculated, hyaline, with the

central vessel fulvous: dorsal tentacles obtuse, obscurely lami-

nated, united by a crest: oral tentacles united by a narrow veil.

Length ;3ths of an inch.

We are indebted for our knowledge of this species to Mr. Byer-

ley of Upton, Birkenhead, who dredged it near Hilbro Island at

the mouth of the Dee in 1851. In many of its characters it

comes very near to Proctonotus mucroniferus, but the laminated

crest shows it to belong to the genus Antiopa.

X.—Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an

eight years’ residence in the Island. By Epvear Lroroitp

Layarp, F.Z.S., C.M.E.S. &e.

[Continued from p. 64.]

219. GALLOPERDIX BICALCARATUS. Aban-cuccula, Cing.

This species, known to Europeans under the various denomi-

nations of “Spur Fowl,” “ Double-spurred Partridge,’ and

“ Kandy Partridge,” is an inhabitant of the central, southern,

and south-western provinces. It delights im deep-tangled

brakes, and thick masses of canes on the sides of gentle declivi-

ties ; these it finds abundantly in the localities above cited,

while in the northern and eastern provinces the sandy soil and

open jungles offer no congenial home to a bird of its shy and

retirmg habits. Even in localities where it does occur, it is

more often heard than seen ; for so extreme is its wariness, that

it rarely falls before the gun even of the native hunter, who

creeps about unclad, and noiselessly as the denizens of the forest.

It is trapped by means of nooses and other snares placed in its

path, for its flesh is highly valued by the natives. I think it

106 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

decidedly superior im flavour to any other game which I _—

in Ceylon ; it ate and looked much like grouse.

It is most active durmg morning and evening, roaming in

small parties amid the open glades, or bare towermg trunks of

the “ Mookalane,” but on the least alarm seeking safety in the

most impenetrable underwood ; after remaining some time con-

cealed, if nothing occurs to ‘excite | their fears, a cock-bird,

bolder than the rest, will utter a few low notes, not unlike the

plaintive cry of a turkey poult ; if this is answered from a di-

stance, or the birds are reassured by the total silence, the call is

changed to a loud piping whistle, of which the following stave

gives the nearest representation 1 can devise :—

Nema . : ri

“2 2 -e fe 2 2 2 2 tte 2 22 te r"

= ee oe Tes Seales eee et er SE “4 See

4 Le eee = a ae ee eae eee UNFIT Te |

cre - - - scen - - ~ do.

and the birds once more sally out from their concealment. I

am convinced that, like the Virginian quail, these birds possess

the power of ventriloquism in a great degree. I have often

listened to those in my aviary, and could have declared that the

calls proceeded from every part of the garden save that in which

the performers were located. They do not thrive well in confine-

ment, but exhibit the same wild and suspicious demeanour,

always hiding behind their feeding-troughs, or herding in corners.

If any object approaches too closely and alarms them, they rise

suddenly from the ground with a violent spring, and unless the

roof is placed at a considerable altitude, dash their heads against

it and fall lifeless to the ground.

They fly with great rapidity, but prefer to take refuge in con-

cealment rather than maintain a lengthened flight. One which

escaped from a basket m my house flew up to the roof and

through the ventilating holes, but instead of continuing on the

wing at the elevation it had attained, it dropped instantly into a

small copse, out of which it was hunted with much difficulty,

when it darted through an open door into my kitchen and con-

cealed itself behind a box.

The males are very pugilistic, and in their manner of fighting

reminded me of the game cock, depressing and elevating the

head, imitating each other’s actions, &c. &c.

Of its nidification nothmg is known.

The wretched figure of a “ Rail,” in ‘ Brown’s Illustrations,’ is,

I am certain, meant fora female of this species ; Mr. Strickland

agreed with me in thus thinking.

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 107

220. Francotinus Ponricerranus, Gmel. Cowdari, Mal.

Oussa-watua, Cing.

Not uncommon on sandy soils dotted with jungle, such as ex-

tends from Chilaw northward round to Tangalle ; in the interior

and about Colombo it is not found. In the northern province

it is very abundant, and flourishes well on the islands in the

Jaffna estuary, on which I have frequently had excellent sport.

They frequent the branches of thick trees or bushes, and perch

very readily. They breed twice a year, in August and December

(at least I have taken fresh eggs in both these months), laying

from eight to sixteen eggs. Axis 15 lines, diam. 12 lines. In

shape like those of the European bird, but more yellow in

colour, in a hollow in the bottom of a bush or tuft of grass,

making little or no nest.

221. PERDICULA ARGOONDAH, Sykes.

IT have only seen one pair of these elegant little partridges ;

they were caught alive at Cotta, near Colombo. I have an egg

which can only belong to this bird, also found in the same loca-

lity. Axis 12 lines, diam. 9 lines. It precisely resembles a

diminutive partridge egg.

222. Corurnix Cuinensis, Linn. Wenella-watua, Cing.

This small and elegantly coloured Quail is rather common in

the grass and paddy fields in the neighbourhood of Galle and

Matura; elsewhere I have not met with it, save once in the

Pasdoom corle. It flies together in coveys of ten or fourteen,

and from its diminutive size and rapid motion is hard to

shoot ; when once shot at, it is very difficult to flush again,

skulking among the tufts of grass, and suffering itself to be

caught by the hand. I tried to keep them in confinement, but

they appear of untameable nature, and on the least alarm

spring upwards with such force as to dash their heads in pieces

against the roof of their cage.

223. TURNIX OCELLATUS, Scop., var. Tarcoor, Sykes. Watua,

Cing. Cddey, Mal.

Common in the south; the variety which Mr. Blyth desig-

nates as T. Bengalensis is abundant in the north, to the exclusion

of the other. There does not appear to be any difference in the

eggs, which are oblong-ovate, of a yellowish green colour, closely

mottled with blackish spots, which grow larger towards the ob-

tuse end, in some instances running into each other. Axis 11

lines, diam. 8 lines. The nest, if nest it can be called, is com-

posed of a few bents of grass dropped into a depression in the

108 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

ground, often only the footprmt of a bullock. I have found

the eggs from February to August, and equally fresh.

Dr. Kelaart includes Coturnix Coromandelica, Gmel., in his

list, sed non vidi.

924, Esacus RECURVIROSTRIS, Cuv. Mosul-Krandi and Mosul-

Kanati, Mal. ; lit. Hare-eyed.

A rarish and wary bird, frequenting the open muddy plains of

Mantotte on the western coast, occasionally found about Pt.

Pedro, and I saw a specimen or two at Hambantotte. I think

it is migratory, appearmg in December. I have seen them

coming from the seaward in that month. Its eggs, two in num-

ber, are deposited on the bare ground im a small hollow; they

are of a pale nankeen colour, thickly covered with burnt-umber-

coloured blotches, largest and closest at the obtuse end. Axis

2 inches ; diam. 1 in. 4 lines.

225. CEpICNEMUS CREPITANS, Temm.

Much more frequent and generally distributed than the pre-

ceding species. It is found also in flocks of fifteen or twenty,

whereas the former is a solitary bird, at most only found in

pairs,

226. Cursortus CoroMANDELICUS, Gmel.

Found occasionally on the Wally plams during the month of

April. Dr. Kelaart includes Glareola orientalis, Leach, sed non

vidi.

227. SarciopHorus BiLoBus, Gmel. Kirella, Cg. <Alcaty,

Mal. Verklikker, Dutch. Teteue, Port.

This and the succeeding species are abundant all over the

island in the neighbourhood of water, and with their loud un-

tiring cries, which have been likened to the words, ‘‘ Did he do

it ?” and “It’s a pity to doit,” are the plagues of the sportsman.

The tank-shooter in particular, while stealing along in the

silence of the night to some secluded pool, where he knows he

shall probably find an elk or a bear, is startled by the shrill ery

of this ever-vigilant bird, as it springs from almost under his feet

and makes the night air rmg again, while far and near the cry is

re-echoed, till every wild animal within hearing is on the alert,

roused by its well-known warning voice.

The nest is merely a hollow stamped in the earth by the old

birds, and the eggs, from three to five in number, weigh 3uiss.

Axis 1 in. 6 lines; diam. 1 in. 3 lines. Their colour is a rich

nankeen, plentifully spotted with rather large blotches, some of

which are dark brown, others gray, of a deeper or paler shade ;

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 109

these markings are thickest at the obtuse end. The shape is

similar to those of the lapwing.

228. Losivanetius Gornsts, Gmel. ‘Kibulla, Cing. Aleaty,

Mal.

In habits this species so nearly resembles the last, that nothing

more need be said upon it. Its eggs are rather larger, having

an axis of 1 inch 9 nes, and a diam. of 14 lines; the markings

are similar in colour, but smaller and more thickly and generally

spread.

229. Cuaranprivs Vircinicus, Bech. Rana-watua,Cing. Cotan,

Mal. Sneppy, Port. Chnipe, Dutch. The Dutch and

Portuguese names are applied indiscriminately to all the

lesser waders. Golden Plover of Kuropean sportsmen.

A bird of passage, appearing in September with the rains ; it

frequents ploughed lands in search of worms and grubs of all

kinds, and is not at all rare, particularly in the northern province.

230. Hraticuta LescHenauttit, Less.

Syn. Charadrius rufinellus, Blyth, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1833.

231. Hiaticuta Cantrana, Lath.

and

232. Hiaricuta Puritiprina, Scop. Ola-watua, Cing. This

name is common to most of the waders.

The mud plains of Mantotte and Bangalie on the western coast,

the shores and inlets of the Jaffna estuary, extending as far as

Mulletivoe on the eastern coast, and the salt pans of Hamban-

totte on the south of the island, afford vast feedimg-places for

myriads of the lesser waders, who fly about in flocks of tens, or

tens of hundreds, over the creeks of brackish water which

meander through the naked and inhospitable wastes. Nor must

the numerous marshy mangrove-covered islands, formed by the

silt which accumulates at the mouths of the rivers, be forgotten,

nor the reedy margins of the tanks and lakes be overlooked,

while enumerating the resorts of the Charadrine, Totanine, and

Tringine, Their piping crics mingle equally with the roar of the

surf as it thunders over the coral-reef or sandy beach, with the

moaning of the wind among the trees which surround the lonely

jungle tank, and with the voice of the husbandman as he urges his

toil-worn buffaloes through the teeming mud of his paddy-field.

To the true lover of nature I know no sounds more pleasing than

the wild cries of the sea birds which blend harmoniously with

the rougher voices of her elements; to myself they impart feel-

110 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

ings of the most intense pleasure, feelings of exultation, which

make me long to raise my voice and shout in concert with those

of the busy multitudes,

The commonest of the three species above enumerated is per-

haps H. Philippina ; they are all birds of passage, frequenting

different parts of the island at different seasons, but I never

heard of any of them breeding with us.

233. STREPSILAS INTERPRES, L.

Rare. I procured three specimens at Pt. Pedro in January on

the coral-reef, and Mr. Brodie forwarded me one from Putlam

which he shot on the Calpentyn lake ; I also saw one on the rocks

in Colombo harbour in March.

234. Hamarorus ostRALEGus, Linn.

Very rare; only one or two specimens seen in the Jaffna

estuary in the month of January.

235. ARDEA CINEREA, Linn. Kallapua-Karawal-koka and In-

dooroo-koka, Cing.

Rare: I only procured one specimen, which I killed one

morning before daylight while crossing Wally plam. Mr. Gis-

borne’s collector procured one in the island of Valenny near

Jaffna.

236. ARDEA PURPUREA, Linn. Carawal-koka, Cing.

The “ Blue Heron” of European sportsmen is not uncommon.

I have shot it at Matura and at Pt. Pedro, and saw it on most

of the tanks in the central road. It is rarely seen walking in

the flooded fields like the White Herons, but keeps to beds of

reeds along the margins of rivers and tanks.

237. Arpea AsHa, Sykes.

I procured several specimens of this bird from Valenny, one

of the islands of the Jaffna estuary, and from a lake near Chilaw,

where they bred in company with others of the same genus. I

also shot a young bird pure white, except some dusky gray upon

the winglet and coverts of the primaries, and at the base of some

of the dorsal feathers. Of this bird Mr. Blyth writes—“ This

is an exceedingly interesting specimen, and goes far to prove by

analogy the identity of the white Herodias Greyi with H. gu-

laris.’ I shot this specimen on Colombo lake. The eggs of this

species are of a pale blue colour, in shape a rounded oval. Axis

1 in. 10 lines, diam. 1 in. 5 lines. The nest is a huge structure

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 111

of sticks placed in trees by the water’s side. Incubation goes on

im May and June in Chilaw lake; eggs said to be from four to

six in number.

238. ArpEA ALBA, Linn. Baddadel koka, Cing. Vella-koku,

Mal. ; lit. White Heron. Koku is the Malabar name for all

the Heron family. Gans, Dutch. Garses, Port.

239. ARDEA INTERMEDIA, Wagler. Hotta-kallu-koka, Cing.;

lit. Black-billed Heron.

240. ArpEA GARzETTA, Linn. Sudu-koka, Cing.; lit. White

Heron.

241. ArpEA BUBULCUS, Savig. Gehri-koka, Cing.; lit. Cattle-

keeper Heron.

These Egrets are common in nearly all parts of the island,

except in the hills; at Nuwera Elia Dr. Kelaart has not met

with any; further down I saw them sparingly, but the low

country is their stronghold. 4. bubulcus is sure to be found in

attendance on grazing cattle, ridding them of their flies, ticks,

&c., and the animals seem well to know their benefactors, and

stand quietly, while the birds jump up and peck their tormenters

from their flanks and belly. All the species frequent open fields.

Half-way between Tangalle and Matura is a large lake, which

an Official attendance on the Supreme Court of Judicature for-

tunately enabled me to visit. While the court officers halted

for the heat of the day, I set off on horseback from the rest-

house and galloped to the village, having sent forward my

“fidus Achates,” Muttu, over-night, with orders to prepare me

a boat. This was in waiting when I arrived ; a canoe so narrow

that I could not sit in it, or rather on it with my knees together.

To remedy this defect, Muttu had fastened a bottomless chair

over it! and had woven some coir rope across the chasm. The

canoe, the only one to be had, was about 12 feet long, worm-

eaten throughout, and one end gone entirely, its place being

supplied with a piece of fresh turf, to keep out the water! !

Into this I and Muttu and a steersman got, the villagers pushed

us off, and when fairly afloat I found the top of the gunwale

about three mches from the water, and that my frail vessel

leaked in fifty places. From my elevated position I counted one,

two, three, a dozen alligators, and I anxiously inquired of my

black, and all but nade crew, if they were of the harmless kind.

A shake of the head and the word “ Alliekimboola” by no means

reassured me; it meant they were all man-eaters! I looked at

my boat, then at the loathsome reptiles floating around me, then

112 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

at my boat again; it would not do—I must give it wp—the risk

was too great ; the least sudden, thoughtless move might overset

us. I tried the outrigger with my foot, that was firm; the

nigger knew his safety lay there; “erack”’ went the collecting

gun close to my ear, and down came a specimen of Nycticorax

griseus, a bird until then new to me; this turned the scale, and

I ordered the boat forward ; thousands of water-birds rose at the

report, and soon the guns were busily employed. It was full

breeding season. Herons, spoonbills, ibises, pelicans, &c., &c.,

swarmed in the air and on the trees, while their nests were so

crowded as to touch each other. I could only get a few of those

nearest the lake; up to them the men climbed from the boat,

not daring to venture into the water, which was alive with alliga-

tors, watching for the young birds which fell from the nests ;

several times they snapped up the birds which I shot before I

could get them, though they only fell fifteen or twenty yards

away; the branches of the trees were white with droppings, and

the water below thick and putrid; the stench was imtolerable.

It was with difficulty I could distinguish one nest from another,

so as to be certain of the parentage of the eggs; but by remain-

ing quiet, I marked a bird to its nest, and then rowed up to it,

robbed it, and then lay-to again. The nest seemed to be used

year after year, if one may judge from the masses of sticks of

different ages of which they were composed; my guide also

confirmed this idea, and said the birds were not particular as to

the nest, one species occupying it one year, another the next

perhaps. .

The following are the dimensions of the eggs I obtained,

taken at random from what appeared the most usual form of

each species, though much difference exists in this :—

Ardea alba.—Axis 2 inches 3 lines, diam. | inch 8 lines.

A, intermedia.—Axis 1 inch 9 lines, diam. 1 inch 4 Imes.

A. garzetta.—Axis 1 inch 10} lines, diam. 1 inch 5 lines.

A. bubulcus.— Axis 1 inch 10 lines, diam. 1 inch 4 lines.

Unfortunately most of my eggs were hard-set. I was there

at the beginning of May*. In shape they are equal at both

ends, and very rounded; they are also all of the same pure pale

blue colour.

242. ARDEOLA LEUCOPTERA, Bodd. Kanna koka, Cing.

Very abundant in all marshy ground. It stands motionless

on the low embankments of the paddy-fields, and watches for

small fish, crabs, &c. When one comes within range, it darts

* T see by an old note, that I found A. intermedia breeding in a marsh

at Pt. Pedro at the end of July; eggs being then fresh.

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 113

out its neck and seizes it with its bill; while thus engaged,

their dark-coloured plumes so entirely cover the white ones, that

the bird is almost invisible; on taking to flight, however, these

become apparent. In allusion to this, the Tamuls have a pro-

verb that, like this Koku, the deceitful man only occasionally

shows himself in his true colours.

It breeds in trees in company with other herons ; its eggs are

the same in colour, but rounder in shape; axis 1 inch 5 lines,

diam. 1 inch 2 lines.

243. ARDETTA CINNAMOMEA, Gmel. Nati Korawaka, Cing.

Common about the south of the island; I have not met with

it northward. It frequents beds of rushes, and lights readily on

trees. Muttu brought in a white egg, which he stated he

thought belonged to the species ; he told me he saw a hen bird

rise from some sedges, and on going to the place he found a

rough nest of reeds and flags raised above the water, in which

was the egg. Its axis is 1] inch 3 lines, and diam. 13 lines. In

shape it resembles a Heron’s egg.

244, ARDETTA FLAVICOLLIS, Lath. Carawal-koka, Cing.

Not uncommon in the marshes about Matura; I also shot

three specimens on Colombo lake in March. It frequents reeds,

and perches readily. It is a fearless bird, permits a near ap-

proach and remains motionless, trusting to its sombre colour to

escape detection.

245. ARDETTA SINENSIS, Gmel.

This is the smallest of our species, and is abundant on the

banks of all the southern rivers; it becomes rare towards the

north, where it is replaced by

246. Buroripes Javanica, Horsf.,

which is very abundant. I have seen from ten to twenty spe-

cimens in the Fort-ditch at Jaffna, in one day. This species, by

the way, frequents salt water more than any other, though A. lew-

coptera may often be seen fishing on the mud-banks left by the

retreating tide near shore.

Dr. Kelaart includes A. thalassina, Swains., in his list, on the

authority of some one who forwarded him a specimen many years

ago from the Colombo Medical Museum, he beimg then in En-

gland. I am sure he is mistaken in either the identification or

locality, the latter most probably, since no dependence can be

placed on a museum whose labels have been shifted so often, and

on which so little care has been bestowed.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 8

114 My. E. Li. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

247, PuataLea Leucoropia, Linn. Chapy-chundan, Mal.; hit.

Spoon-mouth. Lapellaar, Dutch.

The Spoonbill is common enough in certain localities, Mulle-

tivoe, Hambantotte, Tangalle, and Chilaw being the principal.

It begins to breed in March in the north, and in the south eggs

are hard set in May ; some young birds were also about. Its eggs

are—axis 2 in. 6 lines, diam. 1 in. 9 lines, rather oval, chalky-

white, with irregular blotches of the colour of dried blood about

everywhere.

248. Nycricorax crisgus, Linn. Ra-kana-koka, Cing.

Common on the Tangalle lake and such localities.

249. TicgRISOMA MELANOLOPHA, Raffles.

I was fortunate enough to procure two or three specimens of

this curious bird about Colombo in the month of November 1852.

The natives were quite ignorant of it, and while I had one alive

im my house came in great numbers to see it. It certainly was

a queer-looking creature ; its eyes were oblong, pupil surrounded

by a light yellow iris darkening into a greenish yellow on the

outside. The cere of the bill greenish, legs and bill dark green,

claws yellow. On being approached it threw itself back on its

tarsi, at first uttermg a loud hiss which deepened into a harsh

cracking bark ; the whole body, head, thighs, wings and neck

were inflated with wind and swelled to a great size; its crest was

erected and its ruff expanded; in this attitude it waited till the

object of its dislike drew near enough to be struck with its sharp

pointed bill, which inflicted a severe puncture.

250. Mycreria Austratis, Lath. Peria-koku, Mal.; lit. Large

Heron. <Al-koka, Cing.; lit. Man-Heron, from its size.

I have only seen a few of these huge waders in the Jaffna

estuary at Elephant Pass; they were always in pairs, wading

about in the shallow water, but always far out of gun-shot.

251. Lerropritus Javanica, Lath.

The pouchless Adjutant is occasionally found on the tanks im

the Wanny, and about the marshes near Tangalle. - I believe it

is migratory, as are most of our larger Storks, appearimg with

the rains.

252. Ciconra LeucocerHaLa, Gmel. Padre-koku, Cing. ; lit.

Parson Bird, from its white throat and black plumage ap-

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 115

pearing at a distance like a clergyman in his black garments

and white neckcloth. Mddna-koku, Mal.

Common throughout the island on all the swampy lands. — It

breeds in trees, in companies, laying several pure white chalky

eggs, the surface of which is curiously granulated. Axis 2 inches

9 lines, diam. 1 inch 10 lines.

253. ANnastomus osciTans, Bodd. Gombellu-koka, Cing. ; lit.

Snail-eater and Snail-koka ;—Bellu, Gombellu and Godabellu

being the Cingalese for snails of all kinds.

Common on all marshes. At Matura I saw them in flocks of

several hundreds ; they were breeding in lofty trees, but I could

not obtain their eggs, though I offered a reward for them; the

natives said they defended their nests with such pertinacity that

they feared to mount to them.

254, TANTALUS LEUCOCEPHALUS, Gmel. Datudua, Cing. ; lit.

Sickle-bill. Changa vella nary, Mal. (Nary is the general

Tamul name for all storks.) Brand-gaus, Dutch ; lit. Brand

or Fire Goose, from the red feather in the tail.

Found in company with the three preceding species: it is not

uncommon.

255. THRESKIORNIS MELANOCEPHALA, Lath. Tatta-koku,Cing.;

lit. Bald-head Koku.

Common in the northern and north-western provinces ; feed-

ing and breeding together in flocks ; they lay four or six eggs in

a large nest of sticks. The eggs are chalky-white, sparingly

blotched here and there with dry blood-coloured marks, thickest

at the obtuse end. Axis 2 in. 7 lines, diam. | in. 9 lines.

256. Isis raucineLLus, Linn. Rattu-datudua, Cing. ; lit. Black

Sickle-bill. Karapu cotan, Mal.; lit. Black Snipe. Swartz-

whelp, Dutch; lit. Black Curlew. Prater whelp, Port.

* Black Curlew ” of English shooters.

Not uncommon about Tangalle Lake and at Pt. Pedro. It

was often brought into the bazaar at the latter place for sale,

and I found it delicious eating. They feed just like curlews,

inserting their bills into the mud and water in search of worms.

[To be continued. |

116 Prof. F. M‘Coy on some new Cretaceous Crustacea.

XI.— On some new Cretaceous Crustacea. By FREDERICK

M‘Coy, F.G.S., Hon. F.C.P.S., Professor of Natural Science

in the University of Melbourne, late Professor of Geology and

Mineralogy in the Queen’s University of Treland.

[With a Plate. ]

Tur line, to the importance of which I first drew attention in a

former paper in the ‘ Annals,’ on Crustacea, and to which I there

applied the distinctive name of “nuchal furrow,” has been also

recognized more recently by Professor Milne-Edwards, in his late

memoir in the ‘ Annales des Sciences’ on the nomenclature of

the hard parts of Crustacea, im which memoir he applies to it

the name “ cervical furrow,” and suggests that it indicates two

rings in the carapace of most Decapods, instead of only one, as

heretofore supposed. As the nomenclature of Professor Milne-

Edwards is much more elaborate than that of his predecessors,

I adopt it here, in the description of the Brachyura im this paper :

the alterations in my former descriptions, necessary to bring

them in accordance with the present ones, can be easily made

by any interested person studying the French paper referred to.

Hoploparia Saxby (M‘Coy). PI. IV. fig. 1.

Desc. Carapace nearly cylindrical, averaging from the edge of

orbit to posterior side margin 2 inches 4 lines, width about

1 inch 8 lines ; nuchal furrow very strong, 1 inch 3 lines from

edge of orbit, and therefore nearer to it than to the posterior

end of carapace; entire surface of carapace closely covered

with rough, irregularly unequal, pointed granules (averaging

five or six in two lines), rather finer on the posterior half ; ros-

trum broad, depressed in the middle, with a slight elevated

mesial line, scarcely reaching the nuchal furrow; rising on

the sides into two prominent, longitudinal, coarsely tubercu-

lated ridges, from each of which a row of tubercles extends

within half an inch of the nuchal furrow ; on the outer side of

each of these rostral ridges, and distant about half the width

of the rostrum, is a similar row of five or six tubercles from

the edge of the orbit; cheek-ridges very large, prominent,

armed with large projecting compressed spines. Abdominal

segments covered with a granulation rather finer and more

uniform than that of the carapace, but the last segment and

middle tail-flap with a much coarser, flattened or squamous

tuberculation ; transverse suture of outer tail-flap strongly

marked, from the great thickness of the basal portion ; ante-

rior articular portion of each segment moderately convex,

Prof. F. M‘Coy on some new Cretaceous Crustacea. 117

suture dividing it from the posterior portion strong. Chele

very large, extending beyond the rostrum as far as from thence

to end of tail-fins, depressed, obtusely carinated at the cuter

and inner edges, moderately convex in the middle ; right hand

much narrower than the left, semielliptical, its greatest width

(at base of moveable finger) 1] inch, equaling the length of

the carpus, or two-thirds the length from the base of moveable

finger to the carpal joint ; the external margin of the penulti-

mate finger gently arched, nearly smooth, flattened above and

below ; internal margin of hand and moveable finger straighter

than the external one, the former nearly smooth, the latter lobed

by five or six very large flattened tubercles ; cutting edges of

both fingers straight, set with very numerous, small, close, ob-

tuse tubercles; length of the last finger about 2 inches 4 lines ;

length of penultimate joint or hand, from carapace to tip of

penultimate finger, about 4 inches 4 lines: left hand subtri-

gonal, length of carpus to tip of fingers 1 inch 1 line, width

at base of penultimate finger 1 inch 3 lines, but the margins,

which are nearly straight from the carpus, continue to diverge

at about the middle of the fingers, and are thence strongly

arched inwards towards each other ; length of moveable finger

1 inch 9 lines, cutting edge of both fingers much arched, the

points being incurved, each set with one very large bluntly

conical tooth at about one-third its length from the apex, and

two large rounded teeth at about one-third the length from

the base; the inner margin of the hand 1s lobed by five or

six large compressed tubercles, both hands covered with a

coarse granulation (averaging three granules in 2 lines), with

eight or ten scattered tuberclés nearly a line in diameter ; car-

pus on each side trigonal, about 1 inch 3 lines long, having a

granulation like that of the hands, and six or eight irregularly

scattered tubercles on the upper surface, a little more or less

than a line in diameter. Length of tail-flaps 11 lines, entire

length of abdomen 3} inches.

This species is easily distinguished from the only other creta-

ceous species (H. longimana, Sow. sp.) by the much superior size,

and by the great width and flatness of the chelz. The beautifully

perfect specimen which I figure of this species, was collected by

S. M. Saxby, Esq. of Caius College, Cambridge, whose extensive

collection of Isle of Wight fossils is so well known through the

labours of Dr. Fitton and others. I have great pleasure in de-

dicating it to him.

Very rare in the upper White rag beds of the Upper green-

sand of Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Coll. Mr. Saxby.

118 Prof. F. M‘Coy on some new Cretaceous Crustacea.

Glyphea cretacea (M‘Coy). Pl. IV. fig. 2

Desc. Carapace narrow ; cephalic portion long ; from nuchal fur-

row to anterior end of inner tuberculated cephalic ridge ex-

ceeding the greatest depth of the carapace, and exceeding the

length of the triangle enclosed between the nuchal furrow

and the posterior converging extremities of the oblique bran-

chial ridges ; space below the outer cephalic ridge on each

side and the branchial regions covered with a rather coarse,

equal granulation (averaging eight to nine granules in 2

lines). Length from anterior end of inner cephalic ridges to

posterior end of carapace on dorsal mid-line, slightly more

than 10 lines; from middle of nuchal furrow to same point

slightly more than 9 Imes; greatest depth at middle of cara-

pace 4 lines.

I do not know any possible modification of Milne-Edwards’s

nomenclature of the parts of Crustacea, which would enable us

to describe the ridges and sulci of the branchial region of a Gly-

phea in terms indicating any homology with corresponding parts

in other Decapoda. This 1s of little importance, however, in the

description of the species, as the ridges are similar in ‘all the

examples of the genus. I am not aware of any other true

Glyphea in the cretaceous rocks. This very rare species 1s ex-

tremely like the Glyphea rostrata (Phill. sp.) of the coral rag on

a small scale, but is easily distinguished, besides its smaller size,

by the much greater proportional length of the cephalic part of

the carapace, or that in front of the nuchal furrow, when com-

pared with the portion behind it.

Very rare in the Upper greensand of Cambridge.

(Coll. University of Cambridge.)

Noropocorystes (M‘Coy).

The judicious researches of Mr. Carter of Cambridge have

enabled him to add to the characters I originally published of

this genus in the ‘ Annals,’ that there is a notch also in the

lower edge of the orbit.

T have detected a specimen in his collection of. the common

N. Mantelli (M‘Coy) with a pea-like swelling on one of the

branchial regions on the back of the carapace, indicating no

doubt the existence during the cretaceous period of a repre-

sentative of the internal parasitic genus Bophyrus, which attaches

itself to the internal gills of many Crustacea at the present day,

manifesting its presence by the hke external symptom.

Notopocorystes Carteri (M‘Coy). Pl. IV. fig. 3,

Desc. Carapace elongate, trapezoidal; greatest width (a little

Prof. F. M‘Coy on some new Cretaceous Crustacea. 119

behind the mesial furrow) at the posterior of the three large

antero-lateral tubercles of the margin; gently convex, de-

pressed. Nuchal furrow obscured by the map-like marking

on the anterior part of the carapace, but it is moderately deep

and extends from between the two posterior marginal tuber-

cles, with an irregular curve backwards, rounding at a mode-

rate angle under the posterior gastric lobes. Gustric region

very large; meso-gastric lobe forming a very narrow linear

ridge, nearly from the nuchal furrow quite to the extremity

of the rostrum, completely dividing the great proto-gastric

lobes; it is destitute of the large tubercles on this part of the

other species, the granulation being almost invisible to the

naked eye, except along its edges; its posterior end is con-

fluent with the two transversely rounded, subtrigonal, small

posterior gastric lobes, which also form nearly smooth ele-

vations immediately in front of the nuchal furrow; the an-

tertor gastric lobes (coinciding with the origin of the anterior

gastric muscles) form narrow obliquely elongated elevations,

running along the front margin, from the inner notch of the

orbit to the rostrum, along which their anterior ends abruptly

turn, rendering it trifid, including the point of the meso-

gastric lobe, which they resemble in being nearly smooth and

bemg edged with a line of slightly larger granules under the

lens ; proto-gastric lobes very large, ornamented on each side

with a trident-shaped group of three elongate elevated lobes,

nearly equidistant in front, and converging towards the small

posterior gastric lobes behind, the outer lobe of the three

usually disconnected at the base from the conjoined inner

two; it has also a small round elevation immediately anterior

and external to its anterior end; no distinct orbital regions,

but the outer angle of the very large orbits forms the anterior

of the three lateral tubercles ; the very small triangular hepatic

regions, coinciding with the middle lateral tubercle, have also

a small elevated subtrigonal lobe close to the margin; ante-

rior branchial region (or space between the mesial and meso-

branchial sulci) forming a broad oblique band on each side,

extending from each side of the posterior lateral tubercle to

the uro-gastric region ; it has one small smoothed elevation at

the lateral tubercle, immediately within and in front of which

is a very elongate pear-shaped one, having one side coincident

with the nuchal furrow, and a long transverse elongated ele-

vation, extending behind the tapering inner end of the last,

angulated in the middle beyond the termination of that lobe,

and thence bent abruptly backwards and inwards behind the

posterior gastric lobes to the wro-gastric lobe, which cannot

be distinctly separated from the cardiac lobe, but is flanked

120 Prof. F. M‘Coy on some new Cretaceous Crustacea.

on each side by the deep lunate hollows, or little fosse pro-

duced by the attachment of the posterior gastric muscles ;

posterior cardiac or intestinal region not distinctly defined

from the branchial regions, which latter have a small curved

elevated elongation, bordering the inner anterior angle. All

these contorted lobe-like elevations on the anterior half of the

carapace are very minutely granular, edged by a single row of

slightly larger granules, and separated by broad, deep, smooth,

concave furrows; the posterior half of the carapace is uni-

formly minutely granular. Average length 1 inch 2 lines,

proportional greatest width 7/3, (often larger).

This very beautiful and distinct species is larger and flatter

than the others of the genus, and destitute of the tubercles with

which their carapace is marked, by which character, as well as

the very curious, slightly elevated, map-like, contorted, lobular

markings of the anterior half of the carapace, it is easily distin-

guished from its congeners. It is comparatively rare, scarcely a

dozen specimens having been found, while nearly a hundred

have been found of the N. Mantelli (M‘Coy).

Upper greensand of Cambridge.

(Coll. Mr. Carter, Cambridge.)

Revussta (M‘Coy), n. g.

Gen. Char. Small: carapace moderately tumid; transversely

elliptical, front very strongly rounded ; anterior lateral mar-

gins obtuse ; orbits of moderate size, broad, oval, approximate :

most of the regions of the carapace sharply defined by narrow

sulci; meso-gastric lobe triangular behind, abruptly narrowed

to a linear tongue-shaped extension in front, reaching to the

point of the obtusely angular rostrum, where its apex is

flanked by two small oval swellings, indicating the anterior

gastric lobes; proto-gastric lobes large, slightly defined on

their outer margin; posterior gastric lobes united into one

transversely oblong space, slightly wider than the base of the

meso-gastric lobe, flanked at its posterior corners by the two

lunate fosse of the posterior gastric muscles ; uro-gastrie and

cardiac regions undefined, tumid ; posterior branchial regions

much depressed ; anterior branchial or epibranchial lobe or.

region triangular, tumid, corresponding with the lateral angle,

and greatest width of the carapace, and defined between the

narrow sharply-marked linear nuchal furrow, and an oblique

meso-branchial sulcus, extending from about its middle to a

little below the lateral angle of the carapace ; meso-branchial

regions narrow, strongly depressed in their posterior half; he-

patic regions very large, evenly tumid ; plerygostoman regions

Prof. F. M‘Coy on some new Cretaceous Crustacea. 121

very tumid ; orbital regions undefined, two notches in the upper

edge of each.

This genus belongs clearly to the true Brachyura which are so

rare in the fossil state, but is distinct from every living or fossil

generic type with which I am acquainted. The types of the

genus are the following species, and the Podophthalmus Buchu

of Reuss (Versteinerungen der Bohmischen Kreideformation,

p- 15).

The reference to the genus Podophthalmus (Desmarest) by

Reuss rested upon very slight foundation, as is shown by his

remark, that the rare specimen of this little crab which he found

“ stets mit ihrer Bauchflache fest ins Gestein eingewachsen,

so dass sich nur der Riickenschild sehen liess. Auch die Augen

konnten nicht untersucht werden. Desshalb ziehe ich sie auch

nur mit Zweifel zu der obengenannten Gattung, mit der sie sonst

ganz gut iibereinstimmt.” I have now observed the orbits, and

find they completely negative the reference of the fossils to

Podophthalmus, for instead of forming extremely long narrow

channels, extending to the lateral angle, or widest points, of the

carapace, they are small, broad, oval, and the long diameter about

double the short one; the forms of the various regions on the

carapace are also quite different, as well as the general outline,

from the great curvature of the front m the fossil, and conse-

quent shortness and outward slope of the posterior lateral

margin.

Reussia granosa (M‘Coy). PI. IV. fig. 4.

Desc. The general form of the carapace as in the generic cha-

racter ; front and anterior lateral margins very strongly curved,

so that the lateral angles are on a line with the gastric fosse,

the tumid, very slightly angulated edge bearing five or six

irregularly placed, small, distinct tubercles between the orbit

and lateral angle ; hepatic region much larger than the proto-

gastric lobes ; meso-gastric lobe very sharply defined, by deep

narrow impressed outlines ; line between the proto-gastric and

hepatic lobes very faint ; nuchal furrow as a sharp, distinctly

impressed narrow line, extending from the base of the meso-

gastric lobe to immediately in front of the second tubercle

from the lateral angle, having a slight backward curve ; ep2-

branchial lobe pyriform, tumid, defined by the meso-branchial

suleus, which extends from the inner third of each side of the

nuchal furrow to as far below the cardinal angle on the outer

margin as the nuchal furrow is above it ; meta-branchial sulcus

on each side forming a sharply impressed line like the others ;

all the dorsal surface tumid, except the posterior half of the

129 Mani Glassen dhol atnieds

meso-branchial lobes, and the posterior branchial lobes, which

are strongly depressed; surface strongly and closely granu-

lated irregularly, the granules being of three or four different

sizes ; a few small tubercles like those on the anterior margin

also occur, one being conspicuous on each side, slightly below

the middle of the furrow which separates the proto-gastric

from the hepatic lobes, and two on each side on the meso-

branchial region a little within the middle. Width of cara-

pace 10 lines, length 5} lies, transverse length of one orbit

13 line, depth of middle of hepatic region 3 lines.

The coarsely granular surface easily distinguishes this species

from the smooth and glossy B. Buchu, Reuss sp. The anterior

lateral margins are also strongly curved. There is a third spe-

cies in the University collection at Cambridge, distinguished

from the other two by a very fine uniform granulation of the

surface, but it is not sufficiently perfect for description ; it might

be called R. granulosa.

Rare in the Upper greensand of Cambridge.

(Coll. Mr. Carter, Cambridge.)

XI1.—On the Aclis unica, duct. By Wiiiiam Criark, Esq.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, Exmouth, 29th June 1854.

I propose, with your permission, to give an account of a very

rare mollusk which I discovered this day, and which has hitherto

evaded, in a living state, all our researches ; I have sought it for

thirty years, and may therefore sing “Io Pzeans ” with the illus-

trious author of the ‘ Amorum,’ as at last, as with him—

** Decidit in easses preeda petita meos.”

Let this instance of unexpected success impress on us the value

of the “nil desperandum.” The discovery of this creature has

long been a desideratum, as it will solve several malacological

questions: it has from Montagu’s time run the gauntlet of

nearly all the genera, agreeably to the conchological surmises of

naturalists, of whom scarcely two are in accord, and all in error ;

as my notes require me to place it in a position it has never yet

occupied, and which I believe will prove to be its true malacolo-

gical status. Our ignorance of every circumstance attendant on

this almost microscopic being has invested it with a strange

diversity of position and consequent structure, but the hght of

Mr. W. Clark on the Aclis unica. 123

discovery that now dawns on us will dissipate, as it does in every

case, misapprehensions, and tell us that the Fates have decreed,

we all have been at fault about a very simple creature, which

though not absolutely a typical Rissoa, is all but one, as the

shell only wants the callus on the outer lip ; but we have many

admitted Rissoe without that appendage ; indeed, if we were to

look for strict typical specialties in either the hard or soft parts

of any mollusk, every species must become a genus.

Rissoa UNICA, nobis.

Aclis unica, Brit. Moll. vol. ii. p. 222. pl. 90. f. 4, 5.

Chemnitzia unica, Alder et nobis.

Turritella unica, Fleming.

Turbo unicus, Mont. et auct.

Shell.—Of eight yellowish-white, rounded, finely reticulated

volutions with oblique well-marked sutural lines. The apex is

obtuse and not reflexed, as stated by me in another place: I was

deceived by imperfect specimens, which led me into the error of

supposing that it would prove a Chemnitzia.

This is one of the Vee British shells, 7 ing only an

axial admeasurement of ;4, and a diameter of gg uncie ; the

outer hp is thin, and the aperture is oblong- oat and almost

entire.

Animal.—The general colour is hyaline-white, shot through-

out all its organs with a mixture of very minute close-set points,

short lines or - blotches, of flaky and frosted snow colour. Mantle

even with the shell, except that at the apertural upper angle it

emits the filament I have so often mentioned as being present

in all the Aissoe, and whose particular function is doubtful.

The muzzle is slender and rather long, having the first half from

the neck, on its upper part, clothed with a very close tunic or

tight overlay ; ; the disk is smooth, compressed, bevelled to a fine

edee, and almost circular, with a median vertical fissure on the

under surface, in which I have often seen the delicate white cor-

neous plates, jaws, and lingual riband: but great powers and

much time are required to seize a favourable opportunity of vision

in so minute and restless a bemg. The tentacula are very like

those of Rissoa striata, moderately long, flat, rounded or obtuse

at the tips, quite smooth even under high powers, divergent,

with large black eyes, not on pedicles or prominences, but fixed

on the centre of their bases with very little external inclination,

and widely apart ; there is no connecting tentacular veil, nor the

least triangularity, foldings, or the presence of apical inflations,

as in the Chemnitzie; on the march the eyes are usually carried

within the margin of the shell. The foot is slender, greatly hol-

lowed out in front and deeply labiated, with distinct, long,

124 Mr. W. Clark on the Aclis unica.

arcuated linear auricles which play on the march, or, as M. Lovén

would term it, “dete vibrantes,” beneath which it is slightly con-

stricted, and a little beyond the middle, posteally, is fixed on a

simple lobe without lateral expansions or terminal cirrhal fila-

ment ; the light yellow suboval operculum with distinct grossly

spir al. turns, exactly as in the paucispiral Littorinide ; below the

operculum the foot is visibly contracted on each side, and ter-

minates in a rounded rather broad point; no median line is

apparent in any part of the sole.

This creature is not at all shy; it remained lively for thirty-six

hours, and gave every facility for good examination ; it readily

creeps up the deepest glasses, and however often brushed down,

starts again with unabated vigour. The specimen described was

detected in Littleham Cove, between Exmouth and Budleigh

Salterton, in the littoral level, in a debris of minute decayed

shells mixed with sand and mud that has an offensive odour, the

mass being deposited on the margins of deep quiet pools afford-

ing nbtriment to certain long narrow grassy sea-weeds. I have

been thus particular to obviate difficulty to future naturalists,

and I wish them success in obtaining a live specimen with less

trouble than I have had.

The habitat of this species is, I believe, strictly littoral ; its

associates are the Rissoa parva, R. striata, R. planorbis, nobis

(Skenea planorbis, auct.), as these are found in the same mass of

spoil.

That this is a Littormidan and almost a strict Rissoidean

animal, allowing a trifling margin for specialty-variations, ad-

mits of no doubt. It has no malacological community with Tur-

ritella, Aclis, or Chemnitzia ; but as the muzzle is carried in nearly

a similar position as in the latter genus, the young malacologist

must take care in so small an object not to be misled by this

circumstance, or by the centrality of the eyes at the base of the

tentacula: but the veteran observer with delicate and apt mani-

pulation, patience, and good glasses, will easily detect the verti-

cally cloven disk and corneous jaws, which, with the rissoid

simple tentacula, will demonstrate that this animal is merely an

elongated Rissoa; and in our volume of malacological observa-

tions now in the press, we shall deposit it in the section of the

elongated species of that genus.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient servant,

WILiiaM Crark.

P.S.—The remarks of Dr. T. Williams on my branchial theory,

when finished, will be duly acknowledged either in the ‘ Annals,’

or in the appendix to my “ Malacological Observations” now in

the press.

Mr. Lubbock on some Arctic species of Calanidee. 125

XIII.—On some Arctic Species of Calanide.

By Joun Luszock, Ksq., F.Z.8.

[With a Plate.]

Amonc the Crustacea collected by Dr. Sutherland in the Arctic

Ocean, during the late cruise of the Isabel, commanded by

Captain Inglefield, are the following species of Entomostraca :—

Arpacticus uniremis, Gaimard? ; Anomalocera Patersonii, Tem-

pleton ; Calanus arciicus, Baird; C. magnus, n. s.; C. borealis, n.s.;

C. plumosus, n.s.; C. elegans, n. s.; C. longus, n. s.

Gaimard has figured, but not yet described, the above-men-

tioned Arpacticus, so 1 do not feel quite sure about the species.

Unluckily I have not been able to find the eyes im any of these

species of Calanus, for the spirits of wine seem to have removed

all traces of them. Considering that C. arcticus was the only

one as yet described from that part of the world, the large pro-

portion of new species is not surprising.

Calanus magnus, n. s. Frons rotundatus. Cephalothorax mag-

nus, 6-articulatus, postice rotundatus, in medio acutus. An-

tenn antice corpore paulo longiores, setis longis. Abdomen

A-articulatum, stylis brevibus. Pedes biremes primi, ramis

3-articulatis ; quinti ramis 2-articulatis.

Long. 2 une.

Hab. Mare Arct. N. Lat. 76° 10'-77°, W. Long. 60° 6'-71°37'.

This species may at once be distinguished from all Dana’s

species, both of Calanus and Rhincalanus, by having 6 cephalotho-

racic and 4 abdominal segments, long antennary sete, and the

4 posterior cephalothoracic segments of unequal size. The spe-

cies figured by Gaimard in his ‘ Voyage en Scandinavie’ all have

the cephalothorax rounded behind, and in Cetochilus septentrio-

nalis the head forms a distinct segment. The general shape of

the cephalothorax seen from the side is a long ellipse, the second

segment being the broadest part. The anterior segment is much

the largest, then the second, and after that the others gradually

decrease in length as well as in breadth. The posterior is

rounded and obtusely pointed in the centre. It is the largest

species of Calanus that I know.

The anterior antenne axe a little longer than the body, and

about 24-joimted. The fourth segment, counting from the apex,

has a small hair on each side at the apex. The third has two

small ones on the anterior, one of which as usual is lanceolate,

and one long one on the posterior side at the apex. The second

has a long one on each side, that at the posterior being however

the largest. The apical segment bears several rather long hairs.

126 =Mr.J. Lubbock on some Arctic species of Calanidee.

The second pair of antenne consists as usual of a basal part

and two rami, which are nearly of equal size. The largest is

2-jomted. The basal segment bears two long hairs on one side

and a little tuft of shorter ones on the other. This little tuft is

present also in all the Calani I have been able to examine, in

Diaptomus Castor, and in a South American Diaptomus rot as yet

described. The apical segment bears about 12 long hairs. The

second branch consists of about 7 segments, only partially di-

vided from one another, of which the first and the last are the

largest. There are 3 long hairs at the apex and about 9 along

the margin.

The second pair of maxille are a somewhat triangular plate,

which shows traces of being divided into 3 segments, and bears

about 20 setose hairs.

The third pair of maxilla, or first pair of feet accordmg to

Dana, are cylindrical, and consist of 7 segments gradually de-

creasing in size.

All these organs are attached to the first cephalothoracic seg-

ment, the other 5 each bear a pair of natatory legs.

The natatory legs consist each of a 2-jomted basal part and

2 rami. In this species the rami of the first pair each have

3 joints, and the outer one is rather longer than the inner

filet ie. -O),

The rami of the fifth pair are reduced to 2 segments, and the

basal part is armed on its inner margin with a row of short stout

teeth (fig. 1).

The abdomen has 4 segments, of which the anterior is the

largest, and the second next. The lamellz are not much longer

than the last segment.

Colour ?

C. plumosus, n. s. Frons rotundatus. Cephalothorax magnus,

6-articulatus, postice rotundatus, in medio acutus. Antennze

anticee corpore paulo longiores, setis longis. Abdomen 4-arti-

culatum, stylis brevibus. Pedes biremes primi, ramis 4-,

quinti ramis 3-articulatis.

Long. 5% unc.

Hab. Mare Arct. N. Lat. 77°, W. Long. 71° 377.

This species much resembles the preceding. The second

maxille, mandibles, and maxillipeds are similar. The second pair

of antenne differ in having another small segment at the apex

of the larger ramus. The hair at the apex of the penultimate

segment is about the same size as the rest, while in C. magnus it

is much longer than the corresponding hair of the preceding

segments.

The first pair of natatory legs (fig. 4) have 4 segments to

Mr. Lubbock on some Arctic species of Calanide. 127

each ramus, and the secondary setz are larger than in the other

species. The inner side of the large ramus also in all the legs

has on the second segment a row of short hairs resembling the

sete on the longer ones.

The fifth pair (fig. 5) have the rami 3-jomted. They have

small spines on the base like the corresponding pair of legs in

C. magnus.

Colour ?

C. borealis. Frons rotundatus. Cephalothorax magnus, 6-arti-

culatus, postice rotundatus, in medio acutus. Antenne

anticee corpore paulo longiores, setis longis. Pedes bi-

remes antici, ramis 2- articulatis ; postici unum tantum-

modo seementum habent. Abdomen 3-articulatum, stylis

brevibus..

Long. } une.

Hab. Mare Arct. N. Lat. 76°-78° 40', W. Long. 70°.

The apical hairs of the anterior antenne are short. The pos-

terior antennz resemble those of C. magnus (Pl. V. figs. 2, 3).

Colour?

C. elegans. Frons rotundatus. Cephalothorax angustus, 6-arti-

culatus, postice rotundatus. Antenne anticz corpore paulo

longiores, setis longis. Pedes biremes primi ramis 2-articulatis,

ultimi maris unum tantummodo segmentum habent ; foeminz

pedes postici parvissimi. Abdomen 2-articulatum.

Long. 3 une.

Hab. Mare Arct. N. Lat. 62° TE Wong. 52"

This species appears only to have occurred in one place, where

it was abundant. The individuals are all about the same size,

and I do not think it can be the young of any other species

(Pl. V. figs. 7, 8, 9).

Colour ?

C. longus. Frons rotundatus. Cephalothorax 5-articulatus, pos-

tice obtusus sed non rotundatus. Antenne antice corpore bre-

viores, setis brevibus, apicalibus tamen longis. Pedes biremes

antici ramis 3-articulatis. Pedes postici minimi. Abdomen

longum, angustum, 3-articulatum.

Long. 3 une.

Fai. ete Arct. N. Lat. 76°-76° 30.

Of this species there are only three specimens, but it is very

distinct from any of the others; the length of the abdomen being

its most striking characteristic.

The anterior antenne are about as long as the cephalothorax,

128 Mr. Lubbock on some Arctic species of Calanide.

and slender ; all the hairs are short except two, one on each side

of the apical segment.

The second antenne have the 6-jointed ramus rather longer

than the other.

The third pair of mazillipeds are rather small, and consist of

6 segments, of which the basal has 10 setose hairs arranged by

pairs.

The natatory legs increase in size from the first, which are

only 4, inch in length, to the fourth, which are 4th. The rami

are 3-jointed.

The fifth pair (fig. 10) are small, 4, mch in length. They

consist of a basal segment, then a swollen part, which appears to

represent the second basal segment ; then a narrower part, pro-

bably homologous with the larger or outer ramus. It has a con-

striction in the middle, and bears three hairs at the apex, and a

short one externally at the middle.

The abdomen 3-jomted, long, without the lamelle 4, of an

inch in length ; the lamelle themselves are 21, 7. e. as long as the

preceding abdominal segment, and each bears 5 plumose sete,

4 at the end and 1 on the external side.

In the basal segment of the abdomen is an oblong vesicle ; it

is present in all the species, but is very conspicuous in this one.

I neither know its structure nor its use, but from its position, I

imagine it is connected with generation.

In passing I may remark, that Dr. Sutherland collected C.

arcticus from N. Lat. 59° to 78° 30/, and from W. Long. 29° 30!

to 71° 37’. In several cases Dr. Sutherland remarks, that when

none were caught at the surface, after sinking the dredge two or

three fathoms, “ hundreds were obtained in a few minutes.”” The

colour is red.

These species are on an average } of an inch in length, which

is much larger than the average of the whole genus. The Arctic

seas therefore seem very favourable to the development of the

genus Calanus. The colour had in every specimen completely

disappeared.

Note.—There is some confusion about the name Calanus.

The genus was founded by Leach, with the type C. Finmarchicus,

on erroneous characters. Dr. Baird, however, finding, that though

Leach’s reasons were ill-founded, others made it necessary to

erect it into a new genus, dropped Leach’s name Calanus and

adopted a new one, Temora, for the same species. Dana in his

work con Crustacea uses the name Calanus, as I have done in this

paper. It is however doubtful whether the species which he and

I have referred to Calanus, really belong to the same genus as

C. Finmarchicus ; there are no specimens of it in the British

Mr. T. V. Wollaston on a new genus of British Curculionide. 129

Museum, but Dr. Baird thinks that the rostrum is not furcate

like that of Cetochilus. Prof. Dana has no doubt that they are

similar in this respect, but separates them because the eyes are

in Calanus close together, in Cetochilus at opposite sides of the

head. If Dr. Baird is right, then the above-described species

will be Cetochili ; or if they differ as to the eyes, will form a new

genus. Till these points are decided, it will be convenient to

consider them to be Calani. Dr. Baird referred C. arcticus to

Cetochilus on account of its forked rostrum.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Fifth pair of natatory legs of Calanus magnus.

— 2. Fist ditto C. borealis.

— 3. Fifth ditto C. borealis.

— 4. First ditto C. plumosus.

— 5. Fifth ditto C. plumosus.

— 6. First ditto C. magnus.

— 7. Fifth ditto of the male of — C. elegans.

— 8. Fourth ditto of the female of C. elegans.

— 9. Third pair of maxillipeds of C. elegans.

— 10. Posterior legs of C. longus.

— 11. Abdomen and posterior part of the cephalothorax of

C. magnus.

XIV.—Description of a new Genus and Species of British Cur-

culionide. By T. Vernon Wo taston, M.A., F.L.S.

Genus Pentarturum, Woll.

Corpus angusto-cylindricum, sculpturatum, Cossoni formam

simulans, sed ab illo certe distinctum : capite subporrecto ; rostro

prothorace parum breviore, parallelo, tereti, sat gracili, subrecto ;

scrobe parum profunda, decurva, usque ad oculorum marginem

inferiorem retrorsum ducta ; oculis parvis, rotundatis, lateralibus,

leviter prominulis: prothorace elongato, subconico, mox pone

apicem subito transversim constricto, necnon ad basin ipsam

marginato: scutello minuto, subrotundato: elytris parallelis, ad

apicem ipsum leviter acuminatis et singulatim subrotundatis.

Antenne breves, robuste, versus medium rostri (in utroque sexu,

nisi fallor) imsertee ; scapo subrecto (vix incurvo), leviter clavato ;

funiculo 5-articulato, articulis latitudine vix creseentibus, 1™° et

2% sub-obconicis, 3°, 4* et 5° paulo brevioribus, transverso-

obconicis; capitulo rotundato-ovato, solidissimo (articulis egre

observandis), piloso, necnon ad apicem spongioso. Pedes bre-

viusculi, robusti, ad basin valde (przesertim posteriores) distantes :

femoribus clavatis, muticis: ¢zbus rectis, ad apicem externum in

uncum magnum robustum acutum inflexum productis: farsis

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 9

130 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on a new genus of British Curculionide.

pseudotetrameris, articulo antepenultimo reliquis paulo latiore ;

ultimo flexuoso, clavato, wnguiculis sat magnis simplicibus

munito.

A 7eéyTe, quinque, et apOpor, artus.

The very interesting little insect from which the above struc-

tural diagnosis has been drawn out, although an undoubted

member of the Cossonides of Schénherr, is so singularly formed

as regards its five-jointed funiculus, that it may perhaps be looked

upon as connective between that subfamily and the Rhyncopho-

rides,—in which a like number of articulations (though six is

the normal quantity) occasionally obtains. It is, I believe, the

only representative of the Cossonides hitherto described in which

less than seven joints to the funiculus has been noticed ; and it

cannot but be received therefore as a very important addition,

not only to our native fauna, but to science at large,—as intro-

ducing a totally new modification into that immediate depart-

ment of the Curculionide. In its general contour and habit it is

more suggestive of a minute Cossonus than of anything else, its

glabrous deeply-sculptured surface and slender subcylindrical

body, in conjunction with its medially-mserted antenne and its

basally-distant anterior legs, bespeaking a close relation with

that group: nevertheless (in addition to the peculiarity of its

funiculus, in which it recedes from it i toto) its rostrum is of

perfectly equal breadth throughout (not being dilated at its ter-

mination), and the apex of its elytra is somewhat acuminated and

rather curiously developed,—each of them having a tendency to

be separately rounded off, and subrecurved, at its extreme mar-

gin (in a precisely similar manner to what we observe in many

of the Apions). Its discovery is due to my nephew, H. W. Hut-

ton, Esq., of Spridlington near Lincoln, who captured four spe-

cimens in the vicinity of Exeter durmg November of 1853. It

may be characterized, specifically, as follows :—

Pentarthrum Huttoni, Woll.

P. angusto-subcylindricum ferrugineo-piceum subnitidum gla-

brum, rostro ad basin profundius sed apicem versus leviter

punctato, prothorace elongato valde profunde punctato, mox

ante basin latiore, elytris rugulosis punctato-striatis, inter-

stitlis minutissime seriatim punctulatis, antennis pedibusque

paulo pallidioribus et rufescentioribus.

Long. corp. lin. 12.

P. narrow and subcylindrical, pale rufo- (or ferrugineo-)

piceous (the prothorax however being, apparently, rather darker

than the elytra and the apical portion of the rostrum), slightly

shining and glabrous. Rostrum of equal breadth throughout ;

somewhat coarsely punctured at its base, but lightly so towards

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 131

its apex. Prothorax elongated and subconical,—being attenuated

anteriorly, and widest just in front of its base, where it is about

as broad as (or, if anything, a little broader than) the elytra ;

very deeply and regularly punctured all over; somewhat convex

and even, and with scarcely any indications of a dorsal line.

Elytra parallel and rugulose, deeply punctate-striated, and with

a row of very minutely impressed points down each of their in-

terstices. Antenne (especially their scape and club), and the

legs, of a paler and clearer colour than the rest of the surface,—

being somewhat rufo-ferruginous (or very pale rufo-piceous) :

the tibie (particularly the inner edge of the anterior pair, which

are strongly setose) and ¢arsi of the former, and the club of the

latter, very pubescent. Body beneath uniformly and deeply

punctured all over,—with the anal region minutely fulvo-

pubescent.

Respecting its claims to admission into the British fauna

there cannot be the slightest question,—the village of Alphing-

ton, in which it was detected, affording no local reasons what-

soever for suspecting that it could have been accidentally intro-

duced. On the contrary, indeed, I am informed by Mr. Hutton

(to whom I have dedicated the species) that he has made the

most careful inquiries, and that no foreign timber (or material)

of any kind, so far as he was able to ascertain, had entered the

place. The specimens were found amongst logs of wood, recently

cut up for burning; and Mr. Hutton states that it was from out

of a hard and undecayed portion of a cherry-tree (in which their

winding burrows were very apparent) that he succeeded in extract-

ing them. I should add, that I forwarded an example a few

months ago, for comparison, to Berlin, where it was totally un-

known ; and I have no hesitation, therefore, in regarding it as

altogether new to the Curculionide of Europe.

XV.—On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Mizrs, Esq.,

F.RB.S., F.L.S. &e.

[Continued from p. 20.]

B. NEocEe#.

* Filamenta levia. Sp. 28.

23. Lycium pallidum (n. sp.) ;—ramosum, ramulis tortuosis, sub-

nitidis, fusco-rufescentibus, grosse nodosis, breviter spinosis,

creberrime foliosis, foliis e nodis fasciculatis, glaberrimis, spa-

thulato-oblongis, obtusis, imo in petiolum tenuem angustatis,

utrinque alutaceo-glaucis, carnosulis, eveniis ; floribus majus-

132 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

culis, in fasciculis binis, folio sequilongis, calyce pedicello

paullo breviori, poculiformi, carnosulo, glabro, lacmulis 5

lmeari-acutis, tubo equilongis, patentibus; corolla pallide

ochroleuca, tubo cylindrico, supra medium infundibuliformi,

limbi laciniis 5, rhomboideo-ovatis, tubo 4to brevioribus:

staminibus 5, subsequilongis, longe exsertis, filamentis glaber-

rimis, medio tubi msertis, hine geniculatis, et m nervis tot-

idem pilosis ad imum decurrentibus, antheris ovatis, profunde

cordatis, connectivo apice in mucrone excurrentibus: stylo

filiformi, longe exserto, stigmate clavato, sub-2-labiato.—In

Nova Mexico.—». s. in herb. Hook. (Fendler, n. 670).

This species bears greatly the habit of L. Austrinum, but has

a far more pallid aspect: the spines are barely more than 2 inches

long ; the nodes are large and prominent, and from each of them

arises a fascicle of three to ten leaves, 14 inch long, } inch broad :

the pedicels are 3 lines long; the calyx 24 lines, fleshy, some-

what bell-shaped, and divided half-way into five equal, pointed

divisions, which are considerably spreading: the tube of the

corolla is 8 lines long, is contracted to a diameter of } a line in its

lower moiety, while the upper half expands gradually to a dia-

meter of 3 lines in the mouth: the segments of the border are

short, broad, obtuse, somewhat rhomboidal, 2 Imes long and

23 lines broad, and as well as the tube are marked with branching

nervures ; it is quite glabrous, except in the prominent ribs that

extend from the base to the point of insertion of the glabrous

filaments in its middle: the stamens reach nearly to the extremity

of the segments, one however is a little shorter than the others ;

the anthers, of a deep red colour, are cordate at the base, attached

along their upper moiety to an intervening connective, which is

excurrently and curvedly mucronate at the apex, as in L. orien-

tale; the style is filiform, of a reddish colour, curved above, and

extends 4 inch beyond the stamens; the stigma is deeply 2-lobed*.

** Filamenta pilosa. Sp. 24 ad 35.

24. Lycium fragosum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, ramosum, ramulis

cortice fusco rimoso, axillis grosse nodosis, nodis breviter spi-

nosis, foliis e nodis fasciculatis, anguste linearibus, margine

revoluto subtus quasi 3-costatis, utrinque glanduloso-rugosis ;

floribus e fasciculis solitariis, pedunculo capillari folio equi-

longo, calyce scabrido, urceolato, ad medium lacinulis 4 acutis

erectis partito, corolla glabra, anguste cylindrica, superne paul-

lulo infundibuliformi, calyce 6plo longiori, limbi lacinus 4,

brevibus, rotundatis, margine ciliatis, tubo 7mo brevioribus,

* An outline of this plant with floral analysis is given in the ‘Tllustr. South

Amer. Plants’, vol. ii. plate 67 C.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 133

staminibus 4 inclusis, 1 paullo longiori, filamentis infra medium

tubi insertis, hine longiiscule pilosis, swperne glabris, tenui-

bus; stylo longitudine staminum, stigmate clavato, 2-lobo.—

Peru.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Cuming, 948).

This forms a very distinct species, with rugous knotty branches

and naked spines, 2 lines in length, springing out of the nodes:

there are five to ten leaves in each fascicle, 4 or 5 lines long, and

i line broad: the slender peduncle measures 4 lines ; the some-

what tubular calyx is 1} line long, half cleft into four narrow,

acute, equal segments, each separated by a rounded sinus; the

tube of the corolla is 5 lines long, 13 line in diameter at its

broadest part, the lobes of the border bemg only 3 line; the

filaments are inserted into the tube at a distance of a quarter of

its length from the bottom, and are pilose at base for one-fourth

of their length*.

25. Lycium implexum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, intricato-ramosum,

ramis ramulisque rimoso-rugosis, ochraceis, glabris, ramulis

nodosis, apice spinescentibus, spinisque axillaribus brevibus

aciculatis armatis ; foliis e nodis fasciculatis, minimis, cuneato-

oblongis, carnosis, utrinque aspero-pilosis, floribus e fasciculis

approximatis, solitariis, pendulis, pedunculo folio calyceque

eequante ; calyce parvo, pubescente, equaliter 4-dentato, co-

rolla pallida, elongata, anguste cylindrica, superne iufundibu-

liformi, extus glabra, intus ad medium pubescente, limbi

lacinus 4, brevibus, rotundis, levibus, tubo 5to brevioribus,

staminibus 4 capillaribus, subeequalibus, longe exsertis, infra

medium tubi insertis, pro dimidio inferiori molliter pubescen-

tibus, superne leevibus, pro tertia parte exsertis, stylo longitu-

dine stammum.—Chile, ad Coquimbo.—». s. in herb. Hook.

et Lindley (Bridges, n. 1334).

This very distinct plant bears greatly the aspect of several

species of the genus Alona, and of Phrodus, which I have before

described (hwy. op. iv. 33), all collected in the same neighbour-

hood, and at the same time, by Mr. Bridges, as their respective

numbers will show. The branches and branchlets are very knotty

and intricately crossed; the prominent, nodose axils, scarcely

3 lines apart, have a fascicle of four to eight leaves springing

from them, and many are furnished with a short needle-formed

spine. ‘The leaves are spathulately oblong, obtuse, fleshy, glau-

cously pubescent on both sides, with short, rigid, erect hairs ;

they are 1 or 13 line long, and scarcely more than + line broad :

the peduncle, often deflexed, is 1 line long, and about the same

length as the pubescent calyx, which is divided half-way into

* This species with sectional details is represented (/oc. cit.) plate 67 D.

134 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

four linear, obtuse, erect teeth: the corolla is 5 or 6 lines long,

4 line broad towards the base, but swelling to 3 line in diameter

at its mouth, the four smooth, almost orbicular lobes of the

border being about 3 line diameter ; ; the capillary filaments are

mserted into the tube at a distance of one-third of its length from

the base; they are 4 lines long, and are pubescent for two-thirds

of their length, the inner surrounding portion of the tube bemg

also pubescent for about the same distance. This species, although

with acicular spines, will be seen to be extremely different from

L. rachidocladum, described by M. Dunal from the same locality*.

26. Lycium minutifolium, Remy im Gay Hist. Chile, v. 93;

Walp. Ann. ii. 173 ;—ramosissimum, ramulis spinescentibus ;

foliis fasciculatis, mimutissimis, ovatis, obtusis, hirsutis, pedun-

culis axillaribus, solitarius, calyce 4-dentato, vix puberulo,

corolla anguste tubulosa, longiuscula, apice vix dilatata, limbo

4-fido, staminibus vix exsertis.—Chile.

From the above description we may infer that this plant bears

much analogy with the preceding, apparently differing in its

ovate leaves and scarcely exserted stamens.

27. Lycium stenophyllum, Remy, loc. cit. p. 94;—spinescens,

ramosum ; foliis fasciculatis, ineequalibus, linearibus, crassius-

culis, obtusis, pubescentibus, 3 lin. longis; floribus solitariis,

axillaribus, calyce 4-fido, pubescente, segmentis oblongis, ob-

tusis; corolla tubulosa.—Chile.

From the above description it is not clear to which section

this species belongs ; but from its 4-merous flowers and its habit,

it is probably nearly allied to the two preceding species.

28. Lycium cestroides, Schl. Linn. vu. 70. Acnistus cestroides,

nob. Ill. So. Am. Pl. i. 28; Dun. in Prodr. DC. xui. 500;

—breviter spinosum, ramis subflexuosis, albescentibus, juniori-

bus pubescentibus, ramulis brevibus, floriferis, apice spinosis ;

foliis alternis, ellipticis, oblongis, apice acuminatis, imo cunea-

tis, margine ‘subreflexo obsolete ‘crenulato puberulo, nervosis,

utrinque subglabris et minutissime rugulosis, sub lente

glanduloso-scabridis, subtus pallidis, petiolo tenui, longiusculo,

canaliculato, puberulo: floribus pedunculatis, calyce tubuloso

pallide membranaceo, lineis 5 viridibus late costatis signato,

pubescente, 5-dentato, dentibus acutis, erectis, intus margine-

que albido-lanatis; corolla longe tubulosa, imo angustiore,

calyce 5plo longiore, glabra, limbi laciniis 5, rotundis, mar-

gine densissime albo-fimbriatis, erectis, valde imbricatis ; sta-

* A representation of this plant with details is given (/oc. cit.) plate 67 E.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 135

minibus 5, ineequalibus, inclusis, medio tubi insertis, 2 lon-

gioribus faucem vix attingentibus, imo pubescentibus, ovario

oblongo, corolle circumscisse reliquo induto, stylo incluso,

apice incrassato.—Banda Oriental et Tucuman.—~. s. in herb.

Hook, Santiago del Estero (Tweedie) *.

This species was formerly referred by me to Aenistus (loc. eit.)

on account of its shrubby habit, large leaves, and crowded fasci-

culate or umbellate flowers, the lobes of the corolla having

woolly margins ; but my knowledge of it was then only derived

from Schlechtendal’s description. Since that time I have seen

a specimen of a plant, evidently referrible to the same species,

which at a first glance bears more the aspect of an Acnistus or a

Cestrum, than a Lycium: on closer inspection, it will be found

that the flowers are only crowded, by the close approximation of

the axils. The lobes of the border are not tomentose, as in

Cestrum or Acnistus, but densely ciliated, and have a very de-

cided imbricated estivation ; these circumstances, together with

the structure of the stamens, and the cupular induvium of the

corolla that surrounds the ovarium, mark unquestionably the

genus to which it really belongs. Tweedie’s plant, although

from a somewhat distant locality, is evidently the same species

as Sellow’s; both may be said to grow within the same region.

It appears to be a very frondose shrub, with large leaves, and

generally unarmed ; but sometimes it bears short spines in some

of its upper floriferous axils. The leaves are alternate; and

their axils produce in the followig year short branchlets, with

very approximate leaflets, which assume somewhat the appear-

ance of fasciculated clusters. The younger leaves are pubescent,

upon long slender petioles; but as they grow older, they become

glabrous, except at the base and on the petiole, where by a lens

the remaining pubescence is always distinguishable. The larger

leaves measure 3} inches in length, including the petiole of

5 lines, upon which the narrowing base of the blade is somewhat

decurrent ; they are 10 lines broad: other leaves vary from 14

to 24 inches in length, and 7 to 9 lines in breadth. Schlechten-

dal describes the leaves as having short petioles; but the differ-

ence 1s probably accidental, depending on the comparative breadth

of the decurrent portion of the blade on the petiole. The flori-

ferous branchlets, often terminating in a spine, are = to ] inch

long, and bear many small crowded leaves, and very numerous

flowers in almost aggregated clusters. The peduncles are slender,

somewhat thicker above, and 4 lines long: the calyx is tubular,

12 line long, with 5 acute, short, erect teeth, from which as many

* A figure of this species with analytical details is shown (Joc. cit.)

plate 67 F.

136 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

costate nervures descend to the base ; the teeth, more especially,

are covered with whitish pubescence. The corolla is cylindrical,

shghtly swollen below the mouth; the tube is 6 lines long, 13

line diameter in the broader part, and quite smooth ; the lobes of

the border are erect, orbicular, very small, 4th the length of the

tube, and are fimbriated on the margin with numerous ciliated

white hairs: the stamens are enclosed ; two of them nearly reach

the mouth of the tube, the other three being little more than

half their length ; all are pilose for a short portion of their length,

above the point of their insertion in the middle of the tube: the

style is slender below, much thickened above the middle, slightly

curved, and the length of the longer stamens: the stigma is

clavate and sub-bilobed: the ovary is narrow, oblong, smooth,

somewhat shorter than the calyx, and is invested at its base by

the very short induvial cup of the corolla: Schlechtendal states

that the berries are globose, red, and 3 lines in diameter.

29. Lycium elongatum (un. sp.) ;—glaberrimum, ramosum, ramu-

lis elongatis, spinescentibus, nodoso-flexuosis, glauco-griseis ;

foliis 4-8, fasciculatis, lineari-subulatis, obtusiusculis, imo im

petiolum gracilem longe attenuatis, carnosulis; floribus in

fasciculis solitariis, pedunculo folio dimidio breviori, calyce

brevi, tubuloso, 5-costato, acutissime 5-partito, corolla longe

et anguste tubulosa, glabra, sicca rubescente, imo coarctata,

superne vix infundibuliformi, limbi laciniis 5 breviter ovatis,

staminibus brevissimis, inclusis, ultra medium insertis, glabris,

in nervis totidem hirsutulis tubi decurrentibus, 3 longioribus

faucem vix attingentibus, 2 alteris istis dimidio brevioribus ;

stylo corollz tubo equilongo.—Prov. Argentinas.—v. s. in

herb. Hook.; in desertis salsuginosis intra Cordovam et Santiago

de Tucuman (Tweedie, n. 1212).

This plant, although very different in its growth, has its flowers

very similar to those of the preceding species. Tweedie remarks

that this and similar species, all low-growing shrubs, abound here

and in Patagonia in endless varieties; (by Patagonia he means

the southern portion of the province of Buenos Ayres.) The

leaves, including the petiole of one-half their length, are 4 to 6

lines long and } line broad: the slender peduncle is 1} line long :

the narrow, glabrous, tubular calyx, marked with deep red lines,

is 11 line long, and is half cleft into five acute linear teeth, having

pubescent margins: the tube of the corolla is 4 lines long, its

ovate lobes are barely 3 line long, the three longer stamens are

1 line, the two shorter ones 3 line in length*.

* This species is delineated (/oc. cit.) plate 68 A.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 137

30.. Lycium fuscum (n. sp.) ;—imtricato-ramosum, spinosum,

foliis glaberrimis, fasciculatis, late ovatis, in petiolum brevius-

culum attenuatis, evenis, crassiusculis, glauco-viridibus, fuscis,

utringue glanduloso-rugosis, vel elevato-punctatis ; floribus e

fasciculis solitariis, breviter pedunculatis, calyce brevi, cupuli-

formi, breviter 4-dentato, corolla fusco-purpurea, longe tubu-

losa, subincurva, imo angustiore et sulcata, superne paullo

ampliore, limbi lacinus 4, brevissimis, suborbiculatis, margine

dense albo-fimbriatis, staminibus 4 inzequaliter exsertis, fila-

meutis in coarctationem tubi insertis, hime geniculatis et hir-

sutis, inferne in nervis totidem prominulis glabris deliquescen-

tibus, superne levibus, stylo staminibus multo longiore ; bacca

cerulescente, ovali, breviter apiculata, calyce suffulta.a—In An-

dibus Provincie Mendoze.—v. v. ad San Pedro de Uspallata.

I found this plant growing abundantly in the above-named

portion of the Cordillera; unfortunately the only specimen

gathered during my last rapid journey over the Andes was lost,

but some of the leaves and flowers were preserved with the

berries, collected at the same time. The leaves are somewhat

fleshy, roundly oval, 3 lmes long and 2 or 3 lines broad, sud-

denly narrowed into a short petiole 2 lines in length: the

peduncle is 2 lines long; the cup-shaped calyx is 13 line long,

with four short equal teeth ; the tube of the corolla is 5} lines

long, the lobes of the border 3 line in diameter, and are remark-

able for their fimbriated margins, as in L. cestroides*.

31. Lycium confertum (un. sp.) ;—intricato-ramosum, ramulis

nodoso-flexuosis, spinosis, rarius inermibus, cortice cano, ri-

moso, spinis brevibus in axillis approximatis: foliis 6-10,

valde fasciculatis, angustissime linearibus, in petiolum spathu-

latis, glaberrimis ; floribus in fasciculis solitariis, breviter pe-

dunculatis, calyce cylindrico, pilosulo, laciniis 5 subulatis,

tubo zquilongis; corolla anguste tubulosa, vix infundibuli-

formi, imo coarctata, extus pubescente, imo in contractionem

tubi annulo dense barbato cincta, limbi laciniis ovatis, glabris,

tubo 7mo brevioribus, staminibus inzequalibus, inclusis, fila-

mentis in medio tubi insertis, longiuscule hirsutis, superne

levibus, 2 longioribus faucem attingentibus, 2 vix equilongis,

1 dimidio fere breviori, stylo exserto, bacca ovata, parvula,

coccinea, calyce suffulta.—In desertis salsuginosis Prov. Men-

doze et Sancti Ludovici.—v. v. et spec. lexi; abundat in Tra-

vesiam a Mendoza usque ad Coral de Desaguadero et ad Alto del

Yeso, Prov. S. Luiz.

This species I found abundantly along the Desert track all the

* This plant with floral details is shown (/oc. cit.) plate 68 B.

138 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

way from Mendoza to San Luiz. It varies in having the leaves

more or less crowded, more or less attenuated; they are from 3

to 6 lines long, + line br oad; the peduncle is 12 1 or 2 lines long ;

the calycine tube is cylindrical, 5 line long, with narrow, linear,

acute segments 11 line long: the tube of the corolla is 4 or 5

lines long, the segments of its border are $ line long, the larger

stamens are 2 lines in length: the oval berry is 3 lines long*.

32. Lycium Berlandiert, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xin. 520.—Mexico,

prope Laredo (Berlandier).

33. Lycium senticosun (n. sp.) ;—intricato-ramosum, ramis tor-

tuosis, angulatis, griseo-helvolis, fere aphyllis, ramulis patenti-

bus, apice spinosis, foliis e nodis cottoneis prominentibus

paucis (2-3) fasciculatis, parvulis, lineari-spathulatis, obtusis,

glabris ; floribus solitariis, folio duplo longioribus, peduneu-

latis, glabris ; calyce parvo, poculiformi, ineequaliter 4.-dentato,

dentibus acutis, tubo duplo brevioribus; corollz pallide flavee

tubo imo coarctato, infra e medium repente ac late campanu-

lato, limbi laciniis 4, curtissimis, tubo 4to brevioribus, rotun-

dato-deltoideis, reflexis; staminibus 4 exsertis, 2 paullo lon-

gioribus, filamentis in coarctationem tubi imsertis, hinc geni-

culatis et longiuscule hirsutis, superne capillaribus et glabris,

stylo staminibus longiore.—Mexico, ad Monterey.—v. s. in

herb. Hook. (Berlandier, Jan. 1828).

This is evidently very near L. Berlandiert, and may possibly

be only a tetramerous variety of it. It appears to be more barren

of leaves, which are smaller and fewer in each fascicle: the Jeaves

are 23-3 lines long, 3 line broad; the pedicels are 2-23 lines

long, “the calyx is nearly a line long g, the tube of the corolla

2 lines, the segment of the border ie line in length; the con-

tracted portion of the tube is narrow, and a little longer than

the calyx, when it is suddenly enlarged into a bell-shaped form ;

the style is the length of the longer stamens, and the lower part

of the ovarium is encircled by the cupular remains of the corolla,

which here breaks away by a circumscissile line: this same pro-

cess is described as existing in L. Berlandiert; but it partakes in ~

no degree of the nature of a disk, as stated by M. Dunalf.

34. Lycium barbinodum (n. sp.);—intricato-ramosum, subinerme,

valde foliosum, ramis angulatis summe nodosis, cortice fusco,

nodis majusculis, prominentibus, subglobosis, albido-cottoneis;

foliis plurimis (6-8) fasciculatis, internodiis duplo longioribus,

* This species with sectional details is represented (loc. cit.) plate 68 C.

+ A drawing of this plant with floral analysis is shown (Joc. cit.) plate

68 D.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 139

lineari-spathulatis, obtusis, imo in petiolum brevem deliques-

centibus, glaberrimis, carnosulis; floribus parvulis in fascicu-

lis solitarus, cum pedicello brevi folio dimidio curtioribus, ca-

lyce brevi, poculiformi, reticulato, fusco, brevissime 5-dentato,

demum inqualiter 2—3-fisso, dentibus sphacelato-pubescenti-

bus; corollze tubo imo coarctato, hinc repente campanulato,

glabro, limbi laciniis 5, orbicularibus, margine subciliatis, tubo

4to brevioribus ; stamimibus 5, vix equalibus, subexsertis,

filamentis imo geniculatis in coarctationem tubi insertis, lon-

giuscule hirsutis, superne glabris; stylo imo articulato, sta-

minibus paullo longiore ; ovario corolle reliquo cupuliformi

imo circumdato.—Mexico Septentrionali.—v. s. in herb. Hook.

(Sierra Madre) Seemann, no. 2090.

A very leafy species, remarkable for its conspicuous, cottony,

knotty axils, which are from + to } inch apart: the leaves, four

to six in each fascicle, are 8 to 10 lines long, 14 to 2 lines broad :

the flowers are about the size and shape of those of the preceding

species ; the peduncle, equal in length to the calyx, is 1 line

long; the corolla is 3 lines long ; the segments of the border

are 3 line long and broad*.

35. Lycium glomeratum, Sendtn. in Flor. Bras. fase. 6. p. 154;

Dunal in DC. Prodr. xin, 512.

This very distinct species, fully described by Dr. Sendtner

and M. Dunal, is remarkable for its approximated Jarge leaves

and copious fascicles of flowers. It is a small tree, growing

commonly along the banks of the river San Francisco, about

eighty miles from its mouth, where it is called Espinha, though

it is generally unarmed. Its branches are much used by the

natives for making fences. A variety, which may be called

obovatum, on account of its more ovate and obtuse leaves, exists

in Sir Wiliam Hooker’s herbarium, collected by Mr. Gardner on

the [ha de San Pedro, an island near the mouth of the river

San Franciscot.

= Filamenta paullo.supra basin geniculatum globula pilorum

donata. Sp. 36 ad 38.

36. Lycium nodosum (n. sp.) ;—glaberrimum, imerme, ramis

flexuosis, cortice rimoso, albescente, ramulis virgatis, axillis

approximatis, nodosis, cottoneis ; foliis (2—5) fasciculatis, rarius

solitarius et alternis, ovato- vel oblongo-spathulatis, apice rotun-

* A representation of this species with explanatory sections is giveu

(loc. cit.) 68 E.

+ This species is shown (/oc. cit.) plate 68 F.

140 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

datis, imo in petiolum brevissimum attenuatis, eventis ; flori-

bus in axillis solitariis, calyce cupuliformi, brevissimo, crassi-

usculo, zqualiter et acute 4-dentato; corolle glabra tubo in-

fundibuliformi, limbi laciniis brevibus, latis, reflexis ; stamini-

bus 4, subeequalibus, longissime exsertis, filamentis in coarc-

tationem tubi insertis, hine geniculatis et barbatis, uno paullo

breviori; stylo staminibus equilongo; ovario disco carnoso

adnato, et corolle reliquo cupuliformi imo circumdato.—Pro-

vincia Tucuman Argentinorum.—. s. in herb. Hook. (Tweedie).

The leaves are 5 to 7 lines long, 14 to 24 lines broad; the

peduncle is 2 lines long; the calyx is } lme long; the length of

the tube of the corolla is 24 lines, of the segments of its border

1 Jine: the stamens are 1} line longer than the tube, and are

inserted one-third of the distance from the base*.

37. Lycium vimineum (n. sp.) ;—Iinerme, ramulis virgatis, recti-

usculis ; foliis 2-8nisve (interdum 5dnis) fasciculatis, linearibus,

imo in petiolum brevem attenuatis, evens; floribus e fasci-

culis 2-8nisve parvulis, calyce 4-dentato pedunculo vix bre-

viori, dentibus equalibus acutis margine ciliatis tubo levi, po-

culiformi paullo brevioribus ; corolle glabre carnosulz breviter

et late cylindrice tubo paullo supra basin breviter coarctato,

hinc subeampanulato, limbi lacintis 4, late subdeltoideis, reti-

culato-venosis, tubo tertio brevioribus, reflexis: stamimibus 4,

eequalibus, exsertis, filamentis paullo supra basin insertis, hine

glabris et geniculatis, mox fasciculatim barbatis, maculis tot-

idem pilosis intra tubum alternatim interjectis, stylo staminibus

sequilongo.—Proy. Santa Fe Argentinorum.—v. s. m herb.

Hook. (Tweedie).

This is said by Tweedie to be a shrub 12 to 20 feet high,

evidently with long, slender, pendent branchlets, growing very

plentifully near the town of Santa Fe, on the river Parana: the

branchlets are slender, of a light brown colour, smooth and

striated. Two, three, or more leaves grow in a fascicle out of

each cup-shaped axillary node; they are 10 to 16 lines long,

1 or 2 lines broad; two or three flowers spring out of each

fascicle of leaves, one after another, at distant periods; the

peduncle is 13 or 1 line long; the smooth cup-shaped calyx is

of the same length, and is crowned by four equal triangular

teeth with ciliated margins: the corolla is contracted near the

base, is broadly campanular above, with four short and broad

reflected segments, the length of the tube being 24 lines, and of

the segments } line: the stamens, inserted a little above the

* A drawing of this plant with sectional details is given (/oc. cit.) plate

69 A.

On the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus. 141

base of the tube, are 3 lines long; the style is 33 lines in length ;

the lower moiety of the ovary is enclosed in the cup-shaped in-

duvial base of the corolla*.

38. Lycium brevipes, Benth. Voy. Sulphur, 40; DC. Prodr. xin. ;

—spinosum, glaberrimum, ramulis striatulis, subflexuosis,

nitidis, stramineis, apice spinosis; foliis solitariis, 2-3nisve,

cuneato-oblongis subovatisve, obtusis ; floribus parvis, bre-

vissime pedunculatis, solitariis; calyce brevi, poculiformi,

5-dentato ; corolle tubulosz tubo calyce 5plo longiori, limbi

laciniis 5, brevibus, rotundatis, reflexis ; staminibus insertis.

—California.—». s. in herb. Hook.—Magdalena Bay (Barclay),

specim. flore manco.

A spiny shrub with a barren aspect, apparently with few ob-

ovate leaves, which are 4 to 9 lines long, narrowed at the base

into a slender petiole, and 2 to 3 lines broad. The specimen

above referred to has only a single imperfect flower, with a pe-

duncle } line long; the calyx measures | line, the corolla 3 lines,

including the segments of its border $ line in length ; more

perfect flowers, according to Mr. Bentham, are 5 lines long+.

[To be continued. |

XVI.—Note on the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus.

By J. S. Burpon Sanperson, M.D.{

[With a Plate. |

In Mohl and Schlechtendal’s ‘ Bot. Zeitung’ for 1844, certain

peculiar organs are described by Dr. Grisebach as occurring on

the stipules of the rudimentary leaves forming the centre of the

leaf-bud of several species of Rhamnus and other plants belong-

ing to different orders. In these organs, to which he applies the

term corynidia, Dr. Grisebach finds a structure which he sup-

poses to resemble that of the antheridia of the higher Crypto-

gamia. Any evidence to prove the occurrence of antheridia

among the Phanerogamia must, if confirmed, necessarily alter

the views which we are now entitled to entertain of the general

signification of the organs in question : it appeared therefore de-

sirable to repeat the observations above alluded to. With this

object I procured, through the kindness of Prof. Balfour, a suffi-

cient number of the buds of several species of Rhamnus, viz.

* ‘I bis species with sectional details is represented (Joc. cit.) plate 69 B.

+ This species with floral sections is represented (loc. cit.) in plate 69 C.

+ Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, May 9, 1854.

142 Dr. J.S. B. Sanderson on the supposed

R. Alaternus, latifolia, cathartica, &e. The last-mentioned was

selected for examination as most suitable.

1. Arrangement and development of parts forming the leaf-bud.

—The leaf-buds were examined at two periods,—first, in the

middle of last January, and afterwards early in April, when

nearly ready to open. The internal parts are protected by a

resistent tegument, composed of scales of a brown colour and

horny consistence. Each of these scales presents a modified

form, not of the leaf, as is most commonly the case, but of the

stipule ; or rather, to speak more accurately, each scale corre-

sponds to a combination of the two stipules which belong to one

leaf. The arrangement of the scales is imbricated, each scale

covering all its successors by both its margins. The rudimentary

leaves are arranged in pairs, which alternate with each other ;

the two leaves forming each pair being opposite and of nearly

equal size. The four stipules of the last pair of leaves (viz. the

pair most distant from the axis) are enclosed in the first pair of

tegumentary scales, while they, on the other hand, enclose the

four stipules of the penultimate pair of leaves, and so on to the

centre of the leaf-bud ; an arrangement that illustrates im a beau-

tiful manner the correspondence between the scales and the

stipules. Frequently the scales of the first pair are bifid, thus

manifesting a tendency to division into two symmetrical organs.

The vernation of the rudimentary leaves is convolute ; the sti-

pules occupying the space intervening between the convexities

of their rounded folds.

Structure and development of the rudimentary leaves and sti-

pules.—In its earliest condition the leaf is nothing more than.

a lateral budding out of the axis, which soon becomes compressed

from behind forwards *. In a stage slightly more advanced, it is

an awl-shaped organ, the lateral margins of which are curved in-

wards and forwards ; it is inserted into the axis by an expanded

base. In this condition the stipules are seen as two flattened

projections, one on each side (PI. III. A. fig.1a). Still later, as in

fig. 1 6, the involution of the margin of the leaf is more com-

plete, and the stipules have lost their rounded form, having be-

come somewhat spatula-shaped organs,--much broader, however,

below than above. In this state both leaf and stipule consist

entirely of cylindrical cells, the greatest diameter of which is

about 0-009 millim. The breadth of the leaf now diminishes

considerably in proportion to its length, a result which is pro-

duced by the continued involution of its margins. The con-

* The terms anterior and posterior, right and left, internal and external,

&c., are usual in relation to the leaf, taken by itself; its future upper surface

being considered as anterior, as it is by it that it looks towards the axis.

Antheridia of Rhamnus. 143

vexities of the rounded folds are seen on its anterior aspect to

form two undulating ridges, one on each side of a median fur-

row. In the mean time the stipule, originally a mere lateral

projection from the base of the leaf, has increased in relative

size, and now equals or exceeds the leaf itself. A difference of

size is also observed between the two stipules belonging to the

same leaf, the right one from the first somewhat exceeding its

fellow. After they have arrived at about one-eighth of their

ultimate length, both are furnished with a linear median thick-

ening, which extends from the base to the apex. The space

intervening between this thickening and the margin is greater

on the side next the leaf than on the opposite, as a result of

which, the margin itself is convex on the one side, while on

the other it is nearly rectilinear. Those of the outer stipules of

the leaf-bud, which have assumed the character of protective

scales, are brown and horny at their upper part, and much

broader in proportion to their length than the rest (fig. 1 f).

Origin and development of the so-called Corynidia.—The cory-

nidia are found only in stipules which have arrived at about one-

eighth of the length of the whole bud, those of smaller size pre-

senting no trace of their existence. They originate from the

median thickening of the stipule, as nipple-shaped buddings-out

of the anterior surface (fig. 2 a). Soon they assume a clavate

form and overhang the inner margin of the stipule, appearing in

the interval between this organ and the leaf (fig. 2 5). Hach

consists of a central column of cellular tissue surrounded by a

simple layer of others, which do not differ in any respect from

those which surround them, and form the superficial layer of

the stipule. On the more external stipules of the leaf-bud, the

corynidia are found to have altered their form, having become

flask-shaped (fig. 2 6). It is difficult to determine whether the

enlarged extremity is occupied by a cavity containing a trans-

parent fluid, or simply by a lax cellular tissue. It is, however,

certain, that if such a cavity exists, it is not limited in any

distinct manner.

At this point the development of the corynidia ceases, and

they soon become marcescent ; the upper part of the corynidium

shrinking into a mass of irregular form and dark brown colour,

which, after remaining for a time attached to the stipule by a

slender pedicle, eventually separates. In examining the leaf-bud,

there are always to be found a number of such masses floating

free in the water used for dissection. On pressing them between

two glasses, they are found to be solid, resistent bodies. When

sufficient force is used to disintegrate them, they are resolved

into a number of grains of irregular form, which for the most

part correspond in size to the cells of which the corynidia were

144 On the supposed Antheridia of Rhamuus.

originally composed. This granular matter, there can be little

doubt, is to be considered as a resin, with the characters of which,

both physical and chemical, its characters correspond.

Conclusions.—The corynidia of Grisebach differ from true

antheridia in the following particulars :—

1. They are not developed from a single, special mother-cell,

differing in form and contents frem those surrounding it, as in

the case of the true antheridia ; but are merely buddings-out of

the tissue of the stipule, and consist even in their earliest condi-

tion of several cells.

2. They possess at no period of their growth a central cavity

lined by a membrane.

3. They do not discharge their contents, when mature, by

dehiscence, but simply shrink up and wither.

4. The most careful observation fails to detect any structures

which resemble, in the slightest degree, the antherozoids of the

higher Cryptogamia, or which correspond to the “long-tailed

globules enclosed in minute spherical cells ” described by Grise-

bach.

There seems to be no reason to suppose that the corynidia are

at all connected with reproduction ; the function which may be

assigned to them with the greatest appearance of probability

is that of the secretion of the resinous material, which is so im-

portant an auxiliary in the protection of the rudimentary organs

of the leaf-bud from external influences.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. A.

Zig. 1. (All the objects are represented of the same relative size, as mag-

nified about twelve times.) a, a rudimentary leaf with its stipules.

The median depression which intervenes between its folded mar-

gins may be already distinguished. 0, the same in a more ad-

vanced condition, viewed from the right side. There is as yet no

indication of corynidia. c, here the two corynidia are seen in the

space between the leaf and stipule, and projecting over the inner

margin of the latter. d, more advanced condition, in which the

leaf has arrived at the greatest length to which it attains while

enclosed in the bud, but the stipules are considerably shorter.

Numerous bunches of corynidia are observed occupying various

positions on the median thickenings of the stipules. e, later stage,

in which the stipules which now equal or exceed the leaf in length,

have lost their corynidia and have become brown and horny at

their upper part.

Fig. 2. (Magnified about ninety times.) a, part of the inner margin and

anterior surface of a stipule ths of a millim. in length. At the

upper part is seen a corynidium in its earliest condition, viz. as a

nipple-shaped budding-out of the middle layer of cells. Below

are seen two other corynidia more advanced. 6, a mature cory-

nidium. c, a marcescent corynidium.

Zoological Society. 145

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

May 25, 1852.—J. Gould, Esq., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

DeEscrIPTIONS OF A FEW NEW RECENT SPECIES OF BRACHIO-

popa. By Tu. Davipson, F.G.S., MemMBER OF THE GEOL.

Soc. or FRANCE, ETC.

In the valuable collection of reeent Brachiopoda assembled by Mr.

Cuming, some species seem new, and undescribed in Mr. Sowerby’s

Monogr raph ; and it is at that gentleman’s request that I have pre-

pared “the following descriptions, which will complete, with one ex-

ception, the Ter. septigera of Lovén (still unfigured), all the new

recent forms which have hitherto come under my observation.

In a paper published in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist.’

for May 1852, I endeavoured to class all the recent species according

to their internal organization, into four families and thirteen genera,

or sections, as it is evident that these, as well as the fossil forms, must

be comprised in the preposed subdivisions introduced within the last

few years with more or less success into the nomenclature ; and sin-

gular enough, notwithstanding the greater facilities of examining both

the eral arrangements as well as the animal in recent Pence these

important characters have not yet been made use of by malacologists,

who still place nearly all these Terebratuliform shells in one genus,

Terebratula ; while paleontologists, working under much greater

difficulties, have by dint of perseverance and taeble diseovered the

organization of a multitude of extinct forms, filled by the hardest

matrix: and I have no doubt but that before very many years the

internal details of all the fossil species will be as well known as if they

were in the recent state.

Much, however, remains to be done before the proposed classifi-

cations ean be decidedly and definitely adopted, and many modifica-

tions will be considered requisite, as it is evident, from our present

knowledge, that some genera or sections are more or less closely re-

lated, and that certain species possess characters common to more

than one genus, but these examples are few and exceptional in com-

parison to those presenting a similar organization: thus all forms

with a free, simply attached locp, as in Ter. dustralis, Ter. Califor-

niana, &c., must be placed in the same section; all those with the

loop affixed to the hinge plate and to a central more or less elevated

septum, such as Ter. dorsata, Ter. rubicunda, &e., into another group;

those also in which the calcareous appendages consist of only two cen-

tral diverging lamelle, such as Ter. rubra, Ter. pisum, and others,

must necessarily be placed close to each other, &c. The arrange-

ment of the species is, therefore, not a matter of indifference, but

ought to partake of those rules, followed for the other classes of Mol-

lusca, wherein genera are often admitted on far less important differ-

ences.

A complete monograph of the recent species thus framed, with

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 10

146 Zoological Society.

figures, synonyms, dates, &c., is still a desideratum, and I hope ere

long that the science of Conchology will be enriched by such a valu-

able and necessary contribution.

The only object of this short paper is to describe some unfigured

forms, to which I have added some remarks on a few species not

hitherto completely understood.

1. TEREBRATULA Gray, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell irregularly pentagonal, rather broader than long;

valves unequally convex (the perforated bemg gibbous and the smaller

valve rather flattened) ; beak not much produced, truncated by a very

large emarginate foramen—the deltidial plates are disunited, a small

portion of the aperture being completed by the umbo; hinge-line

straight; beak-ridges sharply defined, leaving between them and the

hinge-margin a wide, almost fiat area ; surface ornamented by a great

number of irregular and unequal radiating costee, augmenting rapidly

from numerous bifurcations and intercalations of smaller plaits be-

tween the larger costee; colour partly yellow and red, this last be-

coming more vivid as it approaches the concentric lines of growth ;

structure punctate ; internal appendages consisting of a simply

attached loop, the riband-shaped lamella extending to about four-

fifths of the length of the shell before bending back on itself. Di-

mensions variable: length 14, width 15, depth 9 lines.

Hab. Coast of Korea. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—This fine species has been known to me for several years, but

unobserved by other collectors, who erroneously supposed it to be

the Ter. rubra of Pallas, to which it bears some external resemblance,

but is essentially different in its internal arrangements ; the loop of

our new form being similar to that of Ter. Australis or Ter. lenticu-

laris, &c., while the appendages of Ter. rubra, which is the type of

my lately proposed genus Araussia, consist only of two central diver-

ging branches, somewhat spread out at their extremities. Ter. Grayi

is also distinct from Terebratella Zelandica, the loop of this last being

doubly attached, as in all the species of that section.

2. TEREBRATELLA Boucuarpil, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell of a suborbicular or trapezoidal form, longer

than wide, or broader than long; perforated valve most convex, late-

rally compressed and keeled, the imperforated valve presenting a lon-

gitudinal depression extending from about the middle of the valve to

the front ; beak produced, recurved and truncated by a large circular

and entire foramen ; deltidium in two pieces, meeting at the umbo;

beak-ridges defined, leaving between them and the hinge-margin a

slight concave false area; surface smooth, interrupted only by a few

concentric lines of growth; colour light yellow; internal calcareous

lamellee fixed first to the crural base, and again to the longitudinal

mesial septum, before attaining their greatest length and bending back

on themselves to form the loop; structure punctate. Length 14,

width 13, depth 8 lines.

Hab. Unknown. Coll. of Mr. Cuming.

Obs.—This species seems to differ from T'erebratella Coreanica of

Zoological Society. 147

Adams and Reeve principally in the form of its beak aud in its

coloration ; the Corean form is beautifully strigated with vivid red,

while Ter. Bouchardii is of a uniform light yellow colour ; the details

of the loop seem likewise to differ a little.

3. TEREBRATELLA EvansiI, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell subovate, longer than wide; perforated valve

most convex, smaller one rather compressed ; beak tapering, not much

recurved, and obliquely truncated by an emarginate foramen; del-

tidia small; beak-ridges well defined, leaving between them and the

hinge-margin a false area; surface ornamented by a few unequal bi-

furcated and intercalated cost; colour pale red; structure punc-

tate; apophysary system composed of a central longitudinal sep-

tum, not exceeding half the length of the valve, arising rapidly in the

form of a narrow elevated plate, almost reaching the centre of the

perforated valve, to the middle of which, and to the crural base, are

doubly attached the calcareous riband-shaped lamellz furming the

loop. Length 4, width 33, depth 14 lines.

Hab. New Zealand. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—On first inspection, I thought this shell, of which Mr.Cuming

has two examples, might be the young of T'erebratella Zelandica ; but

on examining the calcareous appendages, I found great dissimilarity in

their respective details. In Ter. Zelandica the loop is first fixed to the

hinge-plate, and again, by a transverse shelly horizontal process, to

the extremity of a slightly elevated mesial septum; the lamella pro-

ceeding again before bending back, as in all T'erebratelle: but im the

interesting little form under notice the mesial septum forms a narrow

elevated plate, extending as far and further than the greatest length

of the lamellze, which last are fixed to the middle portion of the sep-

tum. The remarkable deviation from the general details of the

arrangements in this Terebratel/a has prompted me to examine with

care a multitude of specimens of different species belonging to the

genus, and I was not a little surprised to find that some few other

forms presented a similar arrangement, such as Ter. crenulata,

Ter. Cumingii, &c., thus forming a passage into Magas, which last,

although generically distinct, can no longer constitute a separate

family from the Terebratulide.

4. TEREBRATELLA!? CuMINGII, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell very thick, ovato-oblong ; larger valve most con-

vex, slightly keeled; imperforated one rather depressed ; beak pro-

duced, tapering, not much recurved, and truncated by a small oval

foramen, beginning at the summit of the beak, and directing itself on

the opposite side to the area; no visible deltidium ; a concave trian-

gular area; surface smooth, strongly marked by concentric lines of

growth ; colour white, or slightly tinged with red; shell articulating

by means of two strong teeth in the larger and corresponding

sockets in the smaller valve; apophysary system very complicated,

composed of a mesial longitudinal elevated triangular septum extend-

ing to about two-thirds of the length of the smaller valve, and which

10*

148 Loological Society.

arising from under the cardinal process and crural base, by a gentle

curve reaches and touches the larger valve near to its anterior portion,

from whence it descends by an almost perpendicular line to the bottom

of the valve ; the calcareous riband-shaped lamellee first proceed from

the socket walls, directing themselves by a gentle curve to the ante-

rior portion of the septum, to which they become attached before

bending on themselves to form a loop; the arms are of a brilliant

red colour. Length 5, width 4, depth 23 lines.

Hab. New Zealand. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—Two specimens of this remarkable shell have been obtained

by Mr. Cuming, and it is one of the most interesting among the re-

cent forms, presenting great difficulties from an assemblage of cha-

racters peculiar to more than one of the proposed sections. In out-

ward shape, character of its foramen, and interior of perforated valve,

it much resembles Bouchardia rosea; its foramen is likewise very

similar in position to that presented by several species of Trigonose-

mus ; the shape and position of its central elevated septum, which

touches a portion of the centre of the larger valve, relates it to Magas,

and the disposition of the lamelle to Terebratella. I therefore do

not feel certain in what genus this curious shell should be placed : it

is not a true Terebratella, but there I have placed it for the present,

on account of the form of the loop.

5. TEREBRATELLA SPITZBERGENSIS, Day. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell ovate, slightly pentagonal, longer than wide ;

valves almost equally convex ; beak produced, recurved, and truncated

by a middle-sized foramen ; deltidium in two pieces, partly surround-

ing the aperture ; beak-ridges not very sharply defined ; smaller valve

slightly depressed near the front ; surface smooth, strongly punctate,

and marked by a few concentric lines of growth ; colour light yellow ;

apophysary system composed of a central longitudinal septum, ex-

tending to a little beyond half the length of the shell, in the form of

a narrow plate somewhat elevated at its extremity, to which and to

the hinge-plate are attached the calcified riband-shaped lamellze form-

ing the loop. Length 4, width 3, depth 2 lines.

Hab. Spitzbergen.

Obs.—This small Terebratella seems distinguishable from all the

other recent forms of the genus, by its dimensions, regular ovate

shape, thinness of shell, and comparatively short, doubly-attached

loop, which does not exceed half the length of the valve. I have

hitherto been able to examine but one specimen, from the collection

of Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., and Mr. Cuming.

6. TEREBRATULINA CumINGIHI, Day. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell ovate, somewhat pentagonal, nearly as wide as

long; valves almost equally convex ; beak small, obliquely truncated

by a circular emarginate foramen ; deltidial plates disunited, a small

portion of the aperture being completed by the umbo; auricular ex-

pansions on either side of the umbo very small; surface ornamented

by a great number of minute radiating elevated strize, augmenting

Zoological Society. 149

rapidly by the intercalation of smaller coste at variable distances be-

tween the larger ones; the front margin of the larger valve indents

the smaller one; colour white, tinged with yellow; structure punc-

tate; internal apophysary supports short and annelliform. Length

32, width 3, depth 2 lines.

Tab. Chinese Seas. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—This little Terebratulina may be easily distinguished from

all the other recent species of the genus by its size and relative width

and length, bemg much more convex and globular.

7. Morrista ANOMIOIDES, Scacchi, sp. 1843.

Orthis anomioides, Scacchi in Phil. Moll. Sicil. i.

Terebratula appressa, Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata

of the Aigean Sea, 1843.

Diagnosis.—Shell minute, circular, depressed ; foramen large,

round, encroaching equally on both valves; larger valve with a

straight hinge-area ; deltidial plates minute, widely separated;

smaller valve deeply notched at the umbo ; apophysary system con-

sisting of two branches originating at the base of the dental sockets,

and united to a small elevated process arising from the centre of the

valve.

Animal furnished with two subspiral or sigmoid arms fringed with

comparatively large cilia; the shell is of a green colour, with bright

orange ovaries contrasting with the brilliant white of the ciliated arms ;

structure punctate. Length 1, width 14, depth 3 line.

Hab. Mediterranean ; depth 95 fathoms (Forbes).

Obs.—Some of Philippi’s figures of Ter. seminulum are so like

specimens of 7. appressa (Forbes), that I at first imagined they

might belong to the same type; and in my paper published in the

‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ for May 1852, I placed Ter. appressa

of Forbes as a synonym of Philippi’s species: but since that period

I have had reasons to believe this to be an error, and that in reality

the Italian author’s type does not belong to the same species nor even

genus, but would be a synonym of Argiope (Ter.) Neapolitana of

Scacchi. I have also ascertained that the shell and animal of this

species are figured by Philippi, in the second volume of his ‘ Sicilian

Mollusca.’

8. Kraussta LAMARCKIANA, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell of a somewhat tetragonal form, flattish, with a

moderately deep longitudinal depression in the smaller valve and a

corresponding keel in the larger one ; hinge-line nearly straight ; beak

truncated by a large emarginate foramen, completed by two small

deltidial plates, and by a portion of the umbo of the smaller valve ;

hinge-area flat, well defined; surface ornamented by a number of

small costee, augmenting here and there by bifurcation and intercala-

tion at various intervals ; apophysary system consisting of two short,

central, diverging branches, bifureated at their extremities ; structure

punctate ; colour light yellow. Length 3, width 3, depth 1} lines.

Hab. Sydney and New Zealand.

150 Zoological Society.

Obs.—This species is found near Sydney, living in company with

Ter. Australis, as may be seen by the specimen in the British Mu-

seum ; it is distinguished from K. piswm and K. Deshayesii, by its

somewhat tetragonal shape, stronger and fewer coste, as well as by

the details of its loop, relating it more than any of the other species of

Kraussia to the section Megerlia ; its colour is likewise of a uniform

yellowish tint, while the above-mentioned species are differently

tinged with red.

9. Kraussia Desuayesil, Dav. 1852.

Terebratula Capensis, Adams and Reeve, Voyage of the Samarang,

p. 70. pl. 21. f. 4, 1850 (non 7. Capensis, Gmel.).

Diagnosis.—Shell subovate, generally rather longer than wide ;

valves nearly equally convex, a deep longitudinal depression extending

from near the umbo to the front in the smaller valve, with a corre-

sponding keel in the perforated one; beak produced, and truncated

by a large emarginate foramen; deltidia small, nearly triangular, a

portion of the circumference beg completed by the umbo ; surface

ornamented by a great number of small raised coste, augmenting

rapidly by bifurcation and intercalation of smaller plaits at variable

distances from the beak and umbo ; structure punctate ; colour light

yellow, with stripes of red ; apophysary system consisting of two

short, central, diverging lamelle expanded at their extremities.

Length 6, width 4, depth 2 lines.

Hab. Korea. Coll. Cuming.

10. ArGiopeE NEApPouiTANa, Scacchi, sp.

Terebratula Neapolitana, Scacchi, Oss. Zool. ii. p. 18.

Terebratula seminulum, Philippi, En. Moll. Siciliz, 1836 ; Sow.

Th. Conch, pl. 71. f. 85, 88.

Argiope Forbesii, Dav. Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. May 1852.

Diagnosis.— Shell small, suborbicular, nearly as long as wide, com-

pressed, emarginated in front ; valves unequal, slightly convex, almost

smooth or ornamented by a few rounded and nearly obsolete radiating

costze ; a longitudinal depression extending along the centre of the

smaller valve ; beak produced; foramen large, with a small, lateral,

deltidial plate, and an area on either side; hinge-line straight ;

apophysary system consisting of a small longitudinal mesial septum,

with a complete two-lobed loop; colour light yellow; structure

largely punctate. Length 13, width 13, depth 3 line.

Hab. Naples, and different parts of the Mediterranean, in from

60 to 105 fathoms (Forbes).

Obs.—Since the publication of my paper in the ‘ Annals,’ May

1852, I have, through the kindness of Mr. Hanley, been enabled to

examine two specimens, said to be the types of Scacchi’s Ter. Nea-

politana, and, according to Kiister, the Ter. seminulum of Philippi

would be a synonym; although the last-named author’s species,

from his illustration presenting a deep notch in the umbo (a character

never seen in any drgiope), had led me erroneously to believe 7’. se-

minulum the same as Prof. Forbes’s 7. appressa. The figures of

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 151

Ter. Neapolitana given both by Scacchi, Philippi, and Kister, do

not represent the characters of the species under notice,—so much

so that I believed it new, and gave to it the name of Argiope Forbesii,

which must now be considered only a synonym: and Sowerby’s

figure correctly illustrates the species.

11. RayYNCHONELLA NIGRICANS, Sow. sp. 1846.

Diagnosis.—Shell inequivalve, irregularly tetrahedral, wider than

long; beak acute, and slightly recurved; foramen not entirely sur-

rounded by the deltidial plates, a portion being completed by the

umbo ; beak-ridges well defined, leaving between them and the hinge-

line a false area, not indenting much the smaller valve ; surface orna-

mented by a variable number of sharp plaits, about twenty-five on

each valve, a few of which are due to intercalation ; mesial fold not

prominent, but defined, with a corresponding shallow sinus in the

larger valve ; apophysary system consisting of two short curved

lamellee ; colour bluish black; structure impunctate. Length 8,

width 9, depth 4 lines.

Hab. Five miles east of Ruapuke Island, New Zealand ; dredged

by Mr. Evans, R.N., in 19 fathoms off coral and rock. Coll. Cuming.

O6s.—When Sowerby described this interesting shell, only one

small young specimen, without locality, was known; since then Mr.

Evans has dredged several, some of which exceeded the dimensions

above given. I therefore thought it advisable to redescribe the spe-

cies, more especially as it is scarcely distinguishable from half-

grown specimens of £. concinna, Sow.

12. Orsicuta Evanstit, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell irregularly circular, nearly as wide as long, very

thick ; both valves almost equally orbicular or suborbicular ; apex

subcentral ; the unattached valve is ornamented by numerous strong,

radiating, elevated strize, which augment rapidly by the intercalation

of numerous smaller costze at variable distances from the apex ; these

are intersected by numerous concentric laminz of growth; attached

valve very deep; disk of adhesion small, almost central; fissure mi-

nute, elongated ; surface covered by concentric raised laminze, with

longitudinal striz all round and near the edge ; colour yellow ; texture

horny. Length 53, width 6, depth 4 lines.

Hab. Bodegas. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—Mr. Cuming has three specimens of this Ordicu/a, all similar

in appearance, and distinguishable from O. Cumingii aud O. strigata

by the great convexity of the attached valve, which is flat in the two

above-mentioned species; the disk of adhesion is likewise much

smaller in O. Evansii, and the striation stronger.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

May 11, 1854.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

Dr. Greville mentioned that he had been in correspondence with

Mr. Wilson upon the subject of the North Uist Moss, which had

been referred by that gentleman to Lewcodon Lagurus, while he him-

152 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

self had been disposed to consider it a variety of Hypnum cirrhosum.

Mr. Wilson had, however, satisfied him that it could scarcely be so

considered. In the absence of fructification, Mr. Wilson preferred

to regard it as a variety of Lewcodon Lagurus (although there were

certainly some differences of character) rather than unnecessarily to

multiply species. Dr. Greville was still disposed, on the strength of

the great difference in habit, to doubt of its claim to the place assigned

to it, and thought it probable that the fructification, when discovered,

would remove it altogether from Leucodon.

The following papers were read :-—

1. “On the Structure of Diatomaceze,” by E. W. Dallas, F.R.S.1.

‘The author directed attention to the list of species which follows,

and which, although imperfect, exhibits great variety in the forms,

showing the Medway to be very fertile in these organisms.

Epithemia Musculus.

Campylodiscus cribrosus.

Surirella striatula.

linearis.

Tryblionella marginata.

—— Scutellum.

punctata.

gracilis.

acuminata.

Cymatopleura elliptica.

Triceratinm Favus.

striolatum.

undulatum.

Cyclotella Kiitzingiana.

operculata.

And three species undetermined.

Actinocyclus undulatus.

senarius.

——- septenarius.

— octonarius.

nonarius.

Eupodiscus Argus, 2 vars.

radiatus.

maculatus.

Coscinodiscus radiatus.

minor.

eccentricus.

Thwaitesii.

And an undetermined species.

Cocconeis Pediculus.

Seutellum.

Nitzschia sigmoidea.

dubia.

reversa.

And an undetermined species.

Navicula elliptica.

convexa.

Westii (?).

~—— didyma.

—— pusilla.

punctulata.

—— palpebralis.

Pinnularia divergens.

Stauroneis pulchella.

Cocconema parvum.

Pleurosigma balticum.

Hippocampus.

—— angulatum.

— acuminatum.

distortum.

Doryphora Amphiceros, vars.

Boeckii.

Achnanthes brevipes.

Grammatophora marina (?).

Biddulphia aurita.

Zygoceros rhombus.

Dentricella sp.

Orthoseira sp.

Dictyocha.

Bacteriastrum furcatum (7).

curvatum (?).

Some of the species in the foregoing list have been described as

new to Britain, by Mr. Roper in a paper recently published in the

‘Microscopical Journal.’ The Coscinodiscus, not named, seems from

the description to be the same with that found at the mouth of the

Thames, and is an exceedingly beautiful disc. The four species of

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 153

Actinocyclus are those described by Ehrenberg, and are new British

species. They exhibit the strong siliceous cellular tissue underneath

the moniliform structure of the surface. The examples of Tviceratium

striolatum, and also Zy¢ goceros rhombus differed somewhat from the

figures and descriptions given of them, being provided with two spines

placed close to the projecting terminations or angles of the valve, and

which were always present in the examples that had come under ob-

servation. The surfaces of the valves were also seen to be dotted

over with small projecting nodules which gave them a very remark-

able appearance. ‘These appearances may perhaps be attributable to

a more matured development of the siliceous structure.

Among the remarkable forms found, although not considered to

belong to the Diatomaceze, are the two varieties of Bacteriastrum, the

dises of which were three or four times the diameter of those described

by Mr. Shadbolt, from Port Natal, and the radiations more numerous.

Mr. Dallas directed attention to the structure of the Diatomacez

as affording some of the most beautiful examples of geometric ar-

rangement of cells with which we are acquainted. There are only

three of the regular polygons which can be employed alone to fill up

the space about a point in a plane surface, namely the equilateral

triangle, the square, and the hexagon ; these forms and their angles

are accordingly found to prevail in the structure of the tissues. By

constructing the polygons it was shown that they arrange themselves

in straight lines, determined by the shorter axis of the figures, the

quadrilaterals having two directions in which the lines run, and the

J a three.

2. ‘On the various sections of Coal, considered in their relation

to the Block, and the relative views of Histologists thereon,” by

Mr. Neil Stewart.

The avthor stated :—‘“ Since last July, I have frequently been

employed in making drawings of sections of coal as seen under the

microscope by transmitted light. In the prosecution of this work, I

have felt great difficulty in bringing to my aid the willing zeal so

necessary to spirited delineation, ‘and which can only be commanded

in proportion to the knowledge which the artist has of his subject.

This I can only account for by stating, that a suspicion passed upon

my mind from the beginning, that something was wrong with regard

to sections ; and this suspicion, which I frequently mentioned to gen-

tlemen engaged in the investigation of this subject, increased with

my knowledge, until on reading Mr. Quekett’s paper in the ‘ Micro-

scopical Journal’ for January last, I found that he there expresses a

notion similar to mine, but immediately contradicts it by again return-

ing to the usually received opinion. With a view, therefore, to

satisfy my own doubts, and if possible to make a contribution to sci-

entific truth, I have examined cubical blocks of various coals by direct

light, and with my own hands have made sections from all the sides

of these, and again examined them by transmitted light. I have also

made drawings of such sections.

“* Professor Bennett expresses it as his opinion—and I believe he

holds it in common with others—that the red-coloured strize seen in

the longitudinal section of household coal are tubes or ducts—that

154: Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

the yellow rings seen in the transverse section are the ends of those

tubes—and that the red colour of the tubes, like blood seen in the

veins of the Frog’s foot, is an aggregation of the yellow bodies

strewed over the section like blood-cells in single file.

“* For a moment let us reflect upon the appearance presented by a

cell or tube, as seen on the field of the microscope. In order that

either of these bodies may be seen by transmitted light, a certain

amount of transparency is necessary ; the slightest curvature or undu-

lation on the surface causes the light thrown from the reflector to be

diverted from the eye of the observer, and the part so curved appears

dark ; this is invariably the case at the margins: the outlines of such

bodies are distinctly defined and black, whatever may be their colour

or form, and this blackness is diffused inwards according to their

rotundity.

*« How is it, then, that histologists have in this case departed from

an invariable optical law, and have described appearances void of out-

line as cells and tubes? But even admitting them to be so, I would

then ask, why have these not been carbonized like the adjacent struc-

tures which form the black mass? Wanting these two characteristics,

no one need hesitate to say that they are neither cells nor tubes.

*‘ With regard to the red colour being an aggregation of the yel-

low, it is enough simply to state that that is impossible, from two

facts—the section is reduced to an equal thickness, and the yellow

bodies occur within the red spaces, their definition being then as

complete as wheu imbedded in their usual black matrix.

“T have said that Mr. Quekett expresses a notion similar to mine,

but again returns to the usually received opinion ; here are his

words :—‘ If a small cubical block of any kind of coal be examined

under a power of fifty diameters, four of its six sides will exhibit more

or less of a fibrous structure, precisely like that of wood.’

** Now, if a block of wood and a block of coal be examined together,

with the longitudinal striee of each laid in the horizontal direction,

they will present very different appearances. In the case of the wood

it will be seen that only two of its sides, which I shall call the back

and front, present the striated appearance ; in the other two the ends

are distinctly transverse sections, and show the ends of organisms.

But this is not the case with a block of coal, which may be likened

to a pack of cards, the four sides in question having a similar appear-

ance, and, so far as structure is concerned, having each an equal title

to be called a longitudinal section. Where, then, is the transverse

section of coal, and where are the yellow rings ?

“« Hitherto our attention has been directed to the sides of the block,

let us now examine the top and bottom, or horizontal surfaces: there

the rings are found, and being there, cannot be the ends of the sup-

posed tubes, nor have any relation to them, seeing that their longi-

tudinal direction is that of the surface now under examination.

‘The grinding and polishing process is very instructive. On the

sides of the blocks many series of rings may be ground off without

much alteration in the appearance of the striee, while in reducing the

horizontal surface the transparent parts are constantly changing their

form. The first evidence of transparency which presents itself is a

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 155

deep blood-red spot, beautifully soft at the edges; grind a little

farther, and it assumes the appearance recognized as the resinoid

cell ; a little more grinding, and the spore-case makes its appearance ;

still grind on, the process will be found to be as fertile of form as the

frost is on the window-pane, or the burning embers of the fire to a

musing fancy ; and when the section is reduced to the last degree of

thinness, the shallowest of all peep through. These are the yellow

rings, with their dark centres, on which I shall venture a few obser-

vations suggestive of their origin.

*‘ A painting of a transverse section, executed by Dr. Adams of

Glasgow, and shown by Professor Bennett to the Royal Society, re-

presents the rings as if they were all in the level, and of a uniform

colour. This has no doubt been in some measure the cause of their

having been mistaken for the ends of tubes. Nature shows them dif-

ferent. Some are distinct and bright yellow, while thin as the sec-

tion is when they come into view ; others are still obscured by a layer

of dark matter, and have a bistre-brown colour. Mr. Quekett admits

this to be the case ; it is therefore a matter of astonishment that,

with such a high and well-earned reputation for acute observation,

he, at the same time, describes them as transverse sections of thick-

walled cells or woody fibre.

‘In the longitudinal section these bodies present their edges, are

seen strewed all over the sections, and sometimes assume the appear-

ance of an interrupted yellow line, and individuals now show their

dark centres flattened.

«The dark bodies in the centres of the ring seem to me to be car-

bonized spores. They have the characteristic outline of a cell, are

some of them still quite spherical, and in Professor Balfour’s speci-

men of Wigan Cannel Coal, where the edge of the section is reduced

to a rag, some of them are partially divested of the encircling yellow,

when the spore is seen to project into the empty field. The remains

of some are also seen as black circular lines, sticking in the varnish

with which the specimen had been fixed to the glass.

«The transparent yellow I suppose to have been pressed out in

the process of carbonization, or perhaps gathered round them as a

pool of water encircles a stone on the sea-beach long after the retiring

tide has left all else dry.

“In short, living vegetable matter may with tolerable accuracy be

considered as a semi-opake substance. ‘The process of carbonization

by which it is changed into coal, seems to separate the structural

from the non-structural, the opake from the transparent, and as the

former is compressed and blackened, the latter is insinuated be-

tween the layers, and into every minute fissure and crevice left vacant

around the more resistent particles of the carbonaceous mass ; while

decomposed portions are being constantly carried to the surface of

the earth, by capillary attraction, there to be thrown off into the

atmosphere or taken up by the minute spongioles and rootlets of the

existing vegetation.”

3. ‘On the effects of the recent frosts on vegetation, in different

parts of the country,” by Mr. M‘Nab.

156 Miscellaneous.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Embryogeny and Propagation of Intestinal Worms. By

MM. Ercoxani and Veuua. Abstract by Prince CHARLES

BONAPARTE.

Tue recent investigations of German naturalists on the propaga-

‘ tion and metamorphoses of the Cestoid worms have already engaged

the attention of the Academy, but our authors have occupied them-

selves with the same phenomena in the Nematoid worms, of which

we know scarcely anything.

After combating the most specious arguments that have been

advanced in favour of the doctrine of heterogeny, they endeavour to

show by simple and clearly stated facts, that, in spite of the general

opinion, the ELntozoa enjoy a marvellous tenacity of life. ‘To such

an extent does this go, in fact, that their embryos have lived six

days immersed in alcohol, and been revived after thirty days of com-

plete dryness.

The embryogeny of the Ascaris megalocephala of the horse, hitherto

scarcely known, appears to be almost completely elaborated. ‘The

artificial development of this worm was effected by Dr. Ercolani in

the lung of a dog. The description of these experiments is followed

by some new observations in comparative embryogeny relating to the

Graafian vesicle, the formation of the chorion and of the vitelline

membrane, and especially to the successive development of the organic

constituents of the worms.

Lastly, he shows how the ova of the Nematords, after passing into

the bodies of animals with their food, insinuate themselves into the

walls of the intestine, so that their presence completely escapes de-

tection. In this position these ova undergo a sort of incubation, and

the embryo becomes sufficiently developed to return into the intestinal

cavity, where it is afterwards to pass its life.

In concluding their memoir the authors give the following résumé

of their facts :—

1. “The progressive metamorphoses of the Entozoa, hitherto

studied by Van Beneden, Kiichenmeister and Siebold, although re-

vealing to us new and astonishing facts, are not applicable to the

entire solution of the questions connected with the genesis of all

EEntozoa.

2. “ Although the retrogressive metamorphosis of the ova of Tenia

into Cysticerct and Cenuri have not succeeded with the authors as

with some other observers, they have nevertheless led them to re-

cognize a lower phase in the development of the Cysticercus cunicult,

a phase which approaches this worm to the lowest and most simple

worms: although they present an invaginated head, they are destitute

of the small openings, the hooks, and the caudal vesicle, so that the

opinion entertained by some that the Cysticerct are degenerated

Tenie is not well founded.

3. “The Nematoid worms do not undergo anything like a pro-

gressive metamorphosis ; the changes observable in the embryo are

Miscellaneous. 157

only phases of development ; thus the generative organs are always

the last formed, and are not perfectly presented until the complete

development of the animal.

4. “The horny appendages and hooks, which are wanting in the

Cysticercus cuniculi in the first stages of its development, are also

wanting round the mouth of the Strongylus armatus until after com-

plete development, and are then formed but slowly.

5. “ The eggs of the dscaris megalocephala of the horse may be

artificially developed in the pulmonary tissues of the dog.

6. “The cessation of movement and the fluidity of the body

in the Nematoids are not sufficient signs of the death of these ani-

mals, as they recover from this state as soon as they are placed in

warm water ; even in the state of embryos, although completely dried

up, they return to life very quickly by this means. The Nematoid

worms consequently die with great difficulty ; the ova and embryos

are endowed with a marvellous tenacity of life; they even exhibit

signs of life after immersion for six days in alcohol of 30 degrees.

7. ‘This tenacity of life, jomed with the power of development of

the ovum when placed in circumstances different from those in which

it lives naturally, besides giving evidence of new and important facts,

destroys the strongest arguments employed by many naturalists in

favour of heterogeny.

8. “ The ova of the Nematoid worms require a considerable time

for their development after being introduced with the food into the

bodies of animals; they adhere at first around the villosities of the

mucous membrane of the intestine, whence they afterwards penetrate

to the peritoneum, there to complete their development free from all

danger of being eliminated, returning afterwards into the cavity of

the intestine.

9. “This simple mechanism, in harmony with the laws which

govern the introduction of foreign bodies into the organism, may be

readily observed by examining the yellowish spots which occur in the

intestines of the rabbit, or in the czecum of the horse, which are

nothing but the ova of the Oxyuris of the rabbit or of the Strongylus

of the horse ; amongst these ova we often meet with the microscopic

embryos of these Nematoids.

10. “In the adult females of the Ascaris megalocephala and lum-

bricoides it may readily be shown that the ova are not formed in the

last portion of the oviduct, but in the superior, slender portion which

represents a true ovary.

11. “ From the imner surface of the ovaries of the Ascarides just

mentioned, an immense quantity of elongated, pyriform bodies are

suspended ; these represent the Graafian vesicles of the superior

animals.

12. “ The Graafian vesicle, as in the higher animals, is not torn to

permit the passage of the ovum, but detaches itself completely from

the stroma, and loses its pyriform shape to become round, whilst the

membrane of the vesicle becomes the chorion of the egg.

12. “The vitelline membrane is formed after the detachment of

the ovum.” —Comptes Rendus, 24th April 1854, p. 779.

158 Miscellaneous.

On two new species of South American Birds.

By Pature Lutvey Scuater.

1. Cunictvora BoutviANa, Sclater. C. supra plumbea; infra

alba plumbeo paululum tincta ; ventre niveo ; fronte regione

oculari et genis nigris; alis nigricantibus, tectricibus et se-

eundariis late, primariis strictissimé albo limbatis ; caudd nigrd

lateralibus rectricibus albo terminatis 4; extimis feré omnind

albis-——rostro et pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 42; alee 21; caude 24.

Hab. Bolivia (Bridges), D’Orbigny.

The present bird is the fifth of this interesting genus, of which

the best known are the C. cerulea (Linn.) of the United States, and

the C. dumicola (Vieill.) of Brazil and Paraguay. The Prince of

Canino notices two other previously unrecognized species in his ‘ Con-

spectus Avium,’ p. 316. These I have never seen; but his fifth

species, the C. budytoides, De la Fresnaye, of which I have examined

the type, belongs, I believe, more properly to another genus. There

are specimens of the present species in the British and Paris Mu-

seums, and in the fine collection of the Baron de la Fresnaye at La

Fresnaye near Falaise.

2. Pipra FLAVO-TINCTA, Sclater. P. alba, flavo pallide tincta ;

pileo alis cauddque cum dorso inferiore nigris ; uropygio cum

ventre viridescente-cinereis ; rostro nigro ; pedibus flavis.

Long. tota 3}; ale 12; caudz 1{.

Hab. 8“ Fe de Bogota.

This species is very like the common Pipra manacus, but is smaller,

and has the white parts of its plumage tinged with yellow and much

less black on the back. There are examples in the Museum of the

Jardin des Plantes at Paris and of the Baron de la Fresnaye.—Proc.

Zool. Soc. Feb. 24, 1852.

Description of a new species of Hyrax from Fernando Po.

By Louis Fraser, H.M. Consul at Whidah.

Hyrax porSsALts, Fraser.

Adult male. General colour grizzled brown, becoming darker

towards the back, where the hairs are annulated with black ; a line

of yellowish white, about four inches long, commencing over the

short ribs and running hindways; muzzle naked and of a brown

colour ; eyes light hazel.

Length of head 45 in.; neck and body about 18 in. ; hind feet,

from heel to toe, 3 in.

Hab. Island of Fernando Po.

Its native name is ’Naybar ; it is nocturnal in its habits, and is no

doubt common, as its loud cry of ccurr-ccurr-ccurr may be heard

every evening after dark, during the commencement of the rains.

The Boobies say, it sleeps in the trees all day, and feeds upon

leaves at night, but is very difficult to find.

Meteorological Observations. 159

Mr. Waterhouse, in a letter to Mr. Cuming, writes as follows re-

specting this Hyrax :—

“The Hyraz is certainly distinct from the two species which I am

acquainted with, viz. H. Capensis and H. Syriacus, and upon com-

paring the skin with the description of H. arboreus, the only other

described species, I find several discrepancies which lead me to believe

it will prove distinct. I allude more especially to the texture of the

fur. In Mr. Fraser’s Fernando Po animal the fur is coarse, whilst

in H. arboreus it is said to be soft. This latter animal moreover

has a transverse black stripe about the middle of the lower jaw which

does not exist in Mr. Fraser’s species.’’—Proc. Zool. Soc. Nov. 23,

1852.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JUNE 1854.

Chiswick.—June 1, Fine: cloudy. 2. Rain. 3, Cloudy: clear. 4. Cloudy :

clear and cold at night. 5. Uniformly overcast: fine. 6. Cloudy and cold.

7,8. Cloudy. 9. Overcast. 10. Fine. 11. Fine: overcast. 12. Densely clouded :

slight shower: very clear at night. 13. Rain: clear. 14. Cloudy: very fine.

15. Hazy and drizzly. 16. Hazy: rain. 17. Uniformly overcast: very fine :

clear. 18. Clear and very fine. 19. Very fine: cold at night. 20. Slight haze:

cloudy: fine: clear. 21. Fine: cloudy: rain. 22. Very fine. 23. Uniformly

overcast : very fine: clear. 24, 25. Cloudy and fine. 26. Fine. 27. Fine: rain

at night. 28. Showery: very clear. 29. Cloudy:clear. 30. Very fine: rain at

night.

Mean temperature of the month ............secsescesssesee sees 56°93

Meanstemperauute Ol UNC eS lon ceccatetsacenae ste ae ae deeaerd 59 -16

Mean temperature of June for the last twenty-eight years . 60-51

Average amount of rain in June .............,...0..seesceeseeers 1-90 inch.

Boston—June 1. Cloudy. 2. Rain a.m. 3—I11. Cloudy. 12. Cloudy: rain

A.M. 13—15. Cloudy. 16. Cloudy: rain p.m. 17, 18. Cloudy. 19—22. Fine.

23. Fine: thermometer 83° half-past 2 p.m. 24. Fine: thermometer 80° half-

past 2 p.m. 25. Fine: thermometer 87°: rain p.m. 26. Cloudy: rain a.m.

27. Cloudy. 28. Cloudy: rain a.m.and p.m. 29. Cloudy. 30. Cloudy: rain p.m.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—June 1. Drizzle a.m. and p.m. 2. Cloudy a.m.

and p.m. 3. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 4. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 5. Damp a.m.

and p.m. 6. Cloudy a.M.andp.m. 7. Cloudy a.m.: drizzle p.m. 8. Damp a.m.:

cloudy, fine p.m. 9. Drops a.M.: small rain p.m. 10. Cloudy a.m.: drops p.m.

11. Clear a.M.: rain p.m. 12. Clear a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 13. Clear a.m.:

drops p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m. : showers, cloudy p.m. 15. Cloudy a.m. : clear p.m.

lo. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 17. Clear a.m.: cloudy p.m. -18. Damp a.m. :

cloudy p.m. 19. Rain a.m.: fog p.m. 20. Clear a.m. and p.m. 21. Clear, fine

A.M. and p.m. 22. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 23. Drizzle a.m.: cloudy, fine

p.M. 24. Rain a.m.: clear, fine pM. 25. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m.

26. Showers A.M.: damp p.m. 27. Showers a.M.: cloudy p.m. 28. Clear, fine

A.M.: cloudy p.m. 29. Clear, fine a.m.: drizzle p.m. 30. Drizzle a.m.: drizzle,

showers P.M.

Mean temperature of June for twenty-seven previous years . 52°81

Mean temperature of June 1858 ............ SRE CROCS OLENUCODAHS 55 -21

Mean temperature of this month — ..........0+...sseceseceseees - 52 86

Average quantity of rain in June for thirteen previous years. 2 24 inches.

, = - ——— -

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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

No. 81. SEPTEMBER 1854.

XVII.— Onthe Occurrence of “Cinchonaceous Glands”’ in Galiaceze,

and on the Relations of that Order to Cinchonacee. By

GrorcE Lawson, F.R.P.S., F.B.S.E., Demonstrator of

Botany and Vegetable Histology to the University of Edin-

burgh*.

[With a Plate. ]

A FEw years ago, Dr. Weddell of Paris, in his magnificent mono-

graph of the Cinchonas+, drew attention to a singular feature

in these plants, viz. the constant presence of peculiar glands on

their interpetiolar stipules ; and the attention of this Society was

called by Professor Balfour to Dr. Weddell’s observations.

The inner faces of the stipules are in many cases firmly glued

to the terminal bud, which they embrace, by a gummy or gum-

resinous matter exuded by the small sessile glands to which

reference has bee made. This secretion is stated by Dr. Wed-

dell to be fluid and transparent in Cinchonas and Cascarillas,

but solid and opake in several other genera, remarkably so in

Pimentelia glomerata. In the genus Rondeletia it is soft like

wax, and of a beautiful green colour. The inhabitants of Peru,

who give it the name of Aceite-Maria (oil of Mary), carefully

collect it, and employ it as an external application in various

maladies. It is well known to horticulturists that Cinchonaceous

plants under cultivation are very hable to the attacks of Acaride

and other parasites ; and Mr. M‘Nab has drawn my attention to

the fact, that it is invariably in the neighbourhood of the stipules

on the young shoots that these pests are most abundant, viz. at

the points of the plant where the secretion is most copiously

given off.

* Read to the Botanical Society of Edmburgh, July 13, 1854.

+ Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas, ou Monographie du genre Cinchona,

suivie d’une Description du genre Cascarilla et de quelques autres plantes

de la méme tribu, par M. H.-A. Weddell, M.D. Paris, 1849.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. a

—————ea—aorr ee eee

162 Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiaceze.

The glands occur at the extreme base of the stipule on its

imner or upper surface, and are most plentiful in the immediate

vicinage of the nervures of the stipule, where spiral vessels are

abundant ; but these do not enter the tissue of the gland. In

those plants whose stipules early become reflexed (Rogera for

example) the glands are conspicuously exposed to view; but in

those whose stipules remain closely glued to the stem, it requires

careful dissection to show them. It is in the young state of the

stipule, when it envelopes the terminal bud, that the glands are

im best condition for examination ; they get quite dried up before

the stipule decays.

These stipular glands appear to be of universal occurrence

throughout the whole order Cinehenacee, but as this has not

been ascertained from actual observation of all the species, it

seems desirable here to record the names of those in which they

have been particularly noticed, in order that botanists who have

the opportunity may, from time to time, extend the list of ob-

servations. These glands have been examined in the following

species, viz.—

Cinchona Calisaya, Wedd. Rondeletia odorata, Jacq.

Condaminea, Humb. et Bonpl. Burchellia capensis, Brown.

laneifohia, Mutis. Cephaélis Ipeeacuanha, A. Rich.

amygdalifolia, Wedd. Coffea arabica, Linn.

—— serobiculata, Humb. et Bonpl. Ixora javanica, DC.

— australis, Wedd. coccinea, Linn.

boliviana, Wedd. Musszenda frondosa, Linn.

— ovata, Ruiz et Pav. Pavetta indica, Linn.

rufinervis, Wedd. Luculia gratissima, Sweet.

—— Chomeliana, Wedd. Pineiana, Hook.

— micrantha, Ruiz et Pav. Pentas earnea, Benth.

pubescens, Vahl. Gardenia Stanleyana, Hook.

cordifolia, Mutis. Pimentelia glomerata, Wedd.

—— purpurascens, Wedd. Exostemma longiflorum, R. & S.

carabayensis, Wedd. Rogera Reegelia.

asperifolia, Wedd. versicolor.

Cascarilla Carua, Wedd. —— elegans.

Ladenbergia dichotoma, Kitsch.

In all 35 species.

The Cinchonaceous glands are, in general, minute, more or

less conical bodies, rising from the surface of the stipule, and

are mostly colourless, but in some instances highly coloured, and

are then conspicuous objects.

Their plan of structure is perhaps more distinctly seen in

Cinchona Calisaya than in any other species, and is well illus-

trated in Dr. Weddell’s book. In that plant the gland is sessile,

of an oval or lanceolate form, and somewhat pointed at the apex.

It consists of a mass of dense tissue of somewhat elongated cells,

forming a central nucleus of a conical shape. This axial nucleus

Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiaceze. 163

is surrounded by a layer of much more elongated obconical,

somewhat prismatic cells, which are closely set around the nu-

cleus in a radiant manner, lying upon it like achenes upon a

conical receptacle.

These elongated cells are described by Weddell as having, in

the centre of the outer extremity or apex of each, a minute canal

or perforation in the cell-wall, communicating with the interior

of the cell, and serving to discharge the secreted fluid. This he

says 1s particularly evident in Cinchona Calisaya; and the Com-

mission appointed by the Academy of Sciences to report upon

Dr. Weddell’s investigations (MM. Richard, Gaudichaud and

Jussieu) specially drew attention to the circumstance, as of rare

occurrence in vegetable glands.

I have not been able as yet to demonstrate the canal satisfac-

torily, although the glands of Cinchona Calisaya, and of other

species, have been carefully examined with this view. But, by

this expression of my own failure to see what no doubt requires

a combination of favourable circumstances, supplemented by

patient examination, I do not mean to impute error of obser-

vation to so excellent an observer as Dr. Weddell ; and refrain, in

the meantime, from entering upon a discussion of the point, as

it has specially occupied the attention of my friend Dr. John

Kirk, whose researches I trust will ere Jong be laid before the

Botanical Society. It may here, however, be remarked, that the

secretion is certainly discharged from the apex of the elongated

cells forming the outer layer of the gland, and under certain cir-

cumstances appears in the form of minute globules on their sur-

face. It is not likely that such globules were taken by Dr. Wed-

dell for canals, but they have sufficiently that appearance to be

mistaken by an inexperienced observer.

In size and form the glands vary considerably in different

species. In Ciphers Calisay ya they are of an ovato-lanceolate

form, and measure ;/,th of an inch in length by 7th in breadth ;

while in Ixora coccinea they are very much attenuated, of a linear

lanceolate form, and measure 3\5th of an inch in length by only

zepth in breadth.

In occasional cases, though rarely, two glands are found in

adhesion.

These stipular glands have been hitherto regarded as quite

peculiar to the Natural Order Cinchonacee, and have been em-

ployed as a character whereby to distinguish that order from

Galiacee, in which their presence has not hitherto been suspected,

or has rather by implication been denied.

I have recently ascertained, however, that the so-called Cin-

chonaceous glands are by no means limited to Cinchonacee.

They likewise occur in the Galiacee, and I believe that the

11*

164 Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiacee.

strong odour (in some agreeable, in others fetid) which many of

these plants give off may be found to proceed from the secretions

of their glands. It is not im isolated cases merely that I have

been able to trace the presence of glands in Galtacee. In every

plant of the order of which I have been able to obtain fresh ex-

amples for examination, I have found them to occur; and being

quite unable to find a single instance of a Galiaceous plant i

which they are absent, I thik I am, in the meantime, fairly en-

titled to presume their general occurrence throughout the order.

The plants examined (and found to exhibit these glands) were

the following, viz.—

Rubia peregrina, Linn. Galium Mollugo, Lenn.

tinetorum, Linn. Chersonense, Ram. et Schult.

Asperula taurina, Linn. —— glabrum, Thunb.

odorata, Linn. cruciatum, With.

valantioides. —— saxatile, Linn.

Crucianella suaveolens. —— rostratum.

molluginoides, Bieb. urceolatum.

stylosa, DC. —— purpureum, Linn.

aspera, Bieb.

Galium Aparine, Linn.

rubioides, Linn. pusillum, Linn.

tomentosum, Thunb. boreale, Linn.

tauricum, Rem. et Schult. Sherardia arvensis, Linn.

saccharatum, All.

In all 27 species.

lucidum, All.

verum, Linn.

In Galiacee the glands occur apparently in the axils, but m

reality on the mner or upper surface of the bases, of the leaves.

In structure they bear a considerable resemblance to the stipular

glands of many Cinchonacee, with this difference, however, that

they are generally either distinctly stipitate or club-shaped,

whereas those of Cinchonacee are usually thickest at the base,

and taper (more or less gradually in different species) towards

the apex. When stipitate, the stalk (of the Galiaceous gland) is

composed of two or three (sometimes more) series of cells, those

running up the centre sometimes containing green chlorophyll

granules ; none of these, however, being usually exhibited in the

body of the gland. In Rubza tinctorum each cell of the gland

contains a large green central nuclear body. In form the glands

of Galiacee present even greater variety (in different species)

than those of Cinchonacee.

Another feature in which the glands of Galiacee differ from

those of Cinchonacee is their small size, which is especially ob-

servable in some of the dwarf, small-leaved species of Galium, as

in Galium saxatile, for instance, whose glands are not more than

zeoth of an ich in length by “gth i in breadth, whereas I have

stated those of Cinchona Calisaya (which are not unusually large

Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiacer. 165

for that genus) to average j/5th of an inch in length by 7th in

breadth.

The Cinchonacee and Galacee form two well-marked groups

of plants, abundantly distinct from each other in habit and in

geographical distribution ; the one consisting of trees, shrubs,

and herbs, almost exclusively inhabiting the hotter parts of the

world, most of them eminently conspicuous for their economical

products and the beauty of their broad foliage and flowers,

although some of their number are mean weeds ; the other com-

posed entirely of straggling herbaceous plants, with weak angular

stems and narrow verticillate leaves, mhabiting northern coun-

tries, and (if we except the Madder) alike inconspicuous for use

and ornament. Unfortunately, however, fructification does not

supply any character whereby those two ideally distinct groups of

plants can be clearly separated from each other ; and in the limi-

tation of natural orders, something more than a difference of

habit is considered desirable by all, and by many absolutely re-

quisite. Therefore, although the Cinchonacee and Galiacee are

kept separate by several of our best systematic writers, there is

still a considerable difference of opinion as to the propriety of so

doing, notwithstanding the detailed discussion of the subject at

different times by some of the most distinguished botanists of

Europe.

The principal character whereby these two orders are sepa-

rated, depends upon the leaves of Cinchonacee bemg opposite

(sometimes verticillate), and furnished with interpetiolar stipules ;

while Galiacee have normally verticillate leaves without stipules.

DeCandolle, Bentham, and others, who regard Cinchonacee and

Galiacee as forming only one natural order, Rubiacee, reduce

the distinguishing character above indicated in the following

manner. They regard the Galiacee as opposite-leaved plants,

their foliaceous organs being in part true leaves, and in part leaf-

hke stipules, for the following reasons :—

1. That the foliaceous organs in Galiacee, if viewed as con-

sisting entirely of leaves, do not bear that relation to the angles

of the stem which is usual in Dicotyledons ; but that the relation

becomes apparent if only two of them are taken as leaves and

the rest as stipules. Only two of the apparent leaves have buds

in their axils.

2. That in a number of cases, especially in Asperula, two op-

posite leaves are much larger than the others.

3. That in Spermacocee and other tribes of Cinchonacee, the

stipules are connected with the petiole of the leaf into a sheath,

and that this sheath exists in Ga/iacee.

4, That the number of parts in each whorl is not necessarily

some power of 3, as argued by Dr. Lindley (each leaf having two

stipules), but that taking two of the parts for leaves, it is imma-

166 Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiacee.

terial by what number of similar parts those two are separated,

because the intermediate processes are analogous to the sete of

Spermacocee, the number of which is variable*.

Dr. Lindley objects to this line of argument, (1.) that in La-

biate and similar orders the apparent leaves are never opposite

the angles of the stem, but are always placed between them, and

that the number of angles in the stem of verticillate plants does

not necessarily correspond with the number of their leaves,

Dysophylla for example (a Lamiaceous genus) having whorls of

ten parts, while the stem has but four angles ; that the non-pro-

duction of buds in their axils is no proof of bodies not being true

leaves, all foliaceous organs, and especially stipules, having that

power or not according to circumstances. (2.) That the greater

length of two opposite leaves occasionally observed in Asperula

is to be ascribed to their greater development consequent upon

their higher functions. (3.) That the argument derived from

the occasional connection of the leaves by a membrane loses

weight, when it is remembered that in such cases the interme-

diate leaves are less like stipules than in those cases where no

membrane exists. (4.) That the comparison of the supposed

stipules of Galiacee and the sete of Spermacocee is inadmissible,

because the former are at all events single simple organs, be

they what they may, while the setee of Spermacocee are the result

of the splitting of two parallel-veined stipules, and therefore will

necessarily be uncertain in number.

Dr. Lindley likewise draws attention to the fact, that in Ga-

liacee the supposed stipules are always what first disappear in

the process of reduction in the number of foliaceous appendages ;

but that in Cinchonacee it is in many cases the leaves which are

first lost when such a reduction takes place, which is illustrated

by the capitate Spermacoces, where the bracts are evidently sti-

pules, and especially by S. calyptera, in which the leaves are gra-

dually merged in the large membranous cup that subtends the

flower, while the stipules suffer no diminution.

From these arguments it will be seen that the principal

distinction between the orders Cinchonacee and Galiacee de-

pends entirely upon the theoretical notion we adopt of their

foliacecous organs, and that from whatever point of view they be

regarded, the two orders are structurally closely related to each

other.

The observation of the glands now described, in the Galiacea,

establishes another poimt of relationship between the orders, the

presence of stipular glands in the Cinchonacea, and especially

in the arborescent species, having been hitherto looked upon as

a singular feature of their structure, serving to remove them from

* Vegetable Kingdom, 3rd edit. p. 769.

Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiaceze. 167

the herbaceous Rubiacee of cold countries. It appears to me

that these glands may likewise be instrumental in throwing

light on the nature of the foliaceous organs of Galiacee, as well

as on the morphology of those of Cinchonacee.

In Cinchonacee the glands are invariably confined to the

stipule; and, on observing their occurrence in Galiacee, it at

once occurred to me that if a portion of the foliaceous organs of

Galacee were in reality leaves and the others stipules, then we

had here a key whereby to determine what were leaves and what

stipules. With the view of doing so, I have carefully examined the

position of the glands of all the Galiacee within my reach ; and,

although I came to the subject with a prepossession in favour of

the view of DeCandolle, I have been quite unable to find any

indication, by the arrangement of the glands, of two kinds of

fohaceous organs in these plants. In Galiacee the stipules

occur at the base of the foliaceous organs ; they are not limited

to a certain number in each whorl, but occur in all, being equally

present in those opposite “ leaves”? which bear branches in their

axils, as in those so-called “ stipules” that are barren, although

more abundant in the latter.

In the Cinchenacee I have said that the glands constantly

, occupy the base of the stipule, and are in no ease found on a

leaf or petiole. Here then the presence of these glands is a cer-

tain indication of the stipulary nature ef the organ on which

they occur, no dubiety whatever having hitherto been expressed

respecting the nature of the usual foliaceous organs of Cincho-

nacee. I am not sure in how far we are warranted in applying

this fact to the case of Galiacee ; but where all other characters

have failed, it is not to be entirely overlooked. If then we fol-

low the rule which obtains in Cinchonacee, that stipules are

bodies furnished with glands at their base, we shall come toa

conclusion differing essentially from ali those that have hitherto

been brought forward, viz. that Guliacee are leafless, plants with

whorls of stipules.

It is worth while to keep in view that this idea, although at

first sight sufficiently paradoxical to caution us against its too

hasty adoption, is perhaps in reality less liable to objection than

either the views of Lindley or of DeCandolle and Bentham. At

the same time, even if it were proved to be correct, I do not pre-

cisely see in what manner it could help us out of the difficulty.

In organography, as well as in regard to the disposition of

these two natural orders, the subject is one of considerable in-

terest in a theoretical point of view.

In viewmg the whole question, it appears to me, even admit-

ting (with Lindley) the folaceous organs of Galiacee to be true

leaves, that the character thus established between the two

168 Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca.

orders is not of that great importance with which it seems to be

generally regarded. The leaves are truly verticillate in a certain

portion of the Cinchonacee, and, without any violence to truth,

they may be regarded as verticillate in the whole of these plants,

in this way. All botanists will admit that stipules are merely

reduced or rudimentary, partially-developed leaves. In Galiacee

we have plants with leaves in whorls, all equally developed, but

in many cases with an undoubted tendency to reduction m part

of the whorl. In Cinchonacee a certain number of the leaves of

the whorl are invariably much more fully developed than the

others, which assume the character of stipules, but do not ap-

pear in the form of ordinary stipules, as appendages to other

leaves, but occupy independent positions around the stem like

true leaves. If the argument had proceeded in this direction,

we should probably have had less discussion upon a point which

still remains to be satisfactorily cleared up*.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Stipular gland of Cinchona Calisaya. 70 diameters.

Fig. 2. Stipular gland of Izora coccinea. 70 diameters.

Fig. 3. Vertical section of gland of Cinchona Calisaya (after Weddell),

showing (a) central nucleus of compact tissue, and (d) outer layer

of elongated cells.

Fig. 4. Diagramatic view of two of the cells of the outer layer of the gland

(C. Calisaya), exhibiting the canals (c, c) at their apex, as shown

by Weddell.

Fig. 5. Stipular gland of Exostemma longiflora. 70 diameters.

Fig. 6. Twin gland from stipule of Luculia Pinceana, formed by the adhe-

sion of two glands throughout the greater part of their length.

This is only of occasional (accidental) occurrence, the usual form

of the gland being not unlike that of Exostemma longiflora, but

of greater size. 70 diameters.

Fig. 7. Glands of Galium saxatile. 70 diameters.

Fig. 8. Gland of Crucianella stylosa. 70 diameters.

Fig. 9. Glands of Galium eruciatum. 70 diameters.

Fig. 10. Gland of Galium urceolatum. 70 diameters.

‘ig. 11. Gland of Asperula odorata. 70 diameters.

XVIII.—Miscellaneous Notes on the Fauna of Dacca, including

remarks made on the line of march from Barrackpore to that

Station. By Capt. Ronerr C. Tyrier, of the 38th Regiment

Bengal Native Light Infantry.

| wave already, in page 365, Ser. 2. vol. xii. of this work, given

my observations on the fauna of Barrackpore ; I shall now add

* To Professor Balfour, Mr. M‘Nab, and Mr. Evans, my best thanks are

due, for the unlimited use of plants from the Royal Botanic and Experi-

mental Gardens, for examination.

Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca. 169

some further remarks, confining myself solely to the few notes

made during a most tedious march of twenty days from Barrack-

pore to Dacca, in company with my regiment. The entire di-

stance between the two stations is about 180 miles, through a

country intersected by numerous streams and rivers ; these we

had to cross almost daily, besides encountering various other

difficulties ; I had therefore to work under every kind of disad-

vantage, and was perfectly unable to make any minute observa-

tions on the journey ; however, as opportunities offered, I lost

no time in making the following notes, which although brief

and scanty, may not altogether prove uninteresting.

The road from Barrackpore to Dacca is seldom employed for

troops, for it frequently occurs that portions of the country be-

come entirely inundated for months together, consequently quite

impassable to land carriage ; Europeans are therefore not very

familiar with this part of Bengal, notwithstanding its proximity

to the capital of India.

To as far as the civil station of Jessore, or even as far as Fur-

reedpore, there is no very remarkable difference in the country,

although the aspect decidedly gradually assumes a change ; but

after crossing the magnificent broad river Puddur, the difference

is most observable : jungles become more wide and dense, and

the whole country bears a different feature, which continues to

the city of Dacca; this latter is both a civil and military station.

European travellers now feel for the first time since leaving Cal-

cutta, that they are fairly in the wilds of Hindostan, surrounded

by swamps and unhealthy jungles, infested by tigers and nume-

rous other ferocious as well as venomous animals. The un-

healthiness of this portion of Bengal is proverbial, owing to the

numerous swamps, the quantity of rank vegetation, coupled with

the natural damp and heat that prevail during several months

of the year. “ See Dacca and die” is not an uncommon native

saying. The reader may now imagine the style of country in

which the few following notes were made during a stay of about

five months, when sickness made a change of climate absolutely

necessary.

To as far as Jessore the fauna is similar to that already men-

tioned of Barrackpore, with very slight exceptions; the larger spe-

cies of Raptores observed at the last station become more com-

mon, and frequently very abundant, and after leaving Jessore I

obtained two specimens of Pomatorhinus leucogaster, Timalia

_ pileata and Aquila nevia. | was astonished at getting specimens

of Pomatorhinus leucogaster, their known habitats being Deyrad-

hoon, Nepaul, Assam, and Tenasserim. The Cuculus striatus has

become a most common species ; their note is heard constantly

during the day, and not unfrequently at night : the Cuculus varius

170 Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca.

pair durmg April, for I had several opportunities of witnessing

it ; they are also exceedingly common.

When at Gunagutty enormous flights of the Falcinellus igneus

flew over our camp ; they are excellent eating and much sought

after both by European and native sportsmen, and known to the

former as the small Black Curlew. Owing to the numerous

swamps the number of aquatic birds is surprising, and the

country is perfectly dotted by the Anastomus oscitans and Ciconia

leucocephala. 1 was fortunate in obtaining two eggs of this latter

species, one of which is now in the museum of the Honourable

Kast India Company, and the other in my own collection ; they

are larger than a hen’s egg, and of a pure white colour. The

Plotus melanogaster and Graculus pygmaeus are plentiful; the

former is the well-known Snake-bird of India; both these spe-

cies are peculiar in their habits, and may be seen constantly

seated for hours, apparently motionless, on trees or stakes in or

near water, watching their prey ; they are also in constant attend-

ance on the nets of fishermen, perching themselves familiarly on

the nets ; here they sit in solitary silence, occasionally spreading

out their wings to dry in the burning sun, placing themselves

while so domg in most eccentric attitudes. J had a splendid

specimen of Anas pecilorhyncha shot and sent to me by a brother

officer, who mentioned seemg numbers in the same jheel where

he killed this bird. I also obtained a very curious Tringa, of

what species I am at present uncertain ; it may prove to be only

an albinoid variety of 7. minuta. The Lanius superciliosus (Ind.

var.) is quite disappearing, and the Lanius nigriceps is very com-

mon. The Megalama asiatica and Sciurus palmarum become

scarce, nor did I see one of either after crossing the river Pud-

dur; so scarce seems the common Palm Squirrel of India, that

the natives of Dacca are almost ignorant of its existence.

I observed large flocks of the Larus brunnicephalus fly down the

stream of the river Puddur, as also a flock of that elegant duck,

Anas caryophyllacea: the Acridotheres ginginianus and Sphenura

striata are not uncommon on the banks of the same river; the

latter confining themselves to the grass and bush jungle in the

neighbourhood. I had several opportunities of observing the

actions of Glareola orientalis; they are not uncommon; about

dusk numbers are seen actively engaged, like swallows, in search

of insects, which they take on the wing, to which latter birds

their movements bear a great similarity.

Amongst the Raptores the Haliaétus macei are very common ;

they are not choice in their selection of food, for I have seen

them eating carrion in company with vultures and other carrion

birds. Whilst on the subject of Raptores, I shall relate a curious

circumstance connected with the habits of Milvus ater and Ha-

Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca. 171

hastur indus, which | observed whilst sitting out in a field with

several others after sunset :—A solitary white ant or termite was

observed to fly out of a small hole near us, and went almost per-

pendicularly into the air; another and another followed in quick

succession, till at length myriads formed a stream of living insects.

Notwithstanding the lateness of the evening, several crows (Corvus

splendens) observed the sects, and commenced cawing and flying

about, but were too timid to approach, owing to our proximity ;

suddenly not less than fifty common kites (Milvus ater) made

their appearance, and in less than a few seconds afterwards at

least two hundred of these birds congregated together and at-

tacked the termites; the birds flew within 20 feet over our

heads, and notwithstanding the number collected, so graceful

and exquisite were their movements, that no confusion, striking

of wings, or jostling of each other could be observed, the birds

passing and clearing themselves with the greatest nicety: the

insects were invariably seized with their claws and instantly de-

voured. During this singular spectacle a Brahminee Kite (Ha-

hastur indus) joined the party ; the motions and actions of this

bird, though equally graceful, were considerably more rapid than

the other kites which showed no symptoms of timidity, but con-

tinued their feast till almost every msect disappeared. The birds

now separated and flew off in various directions, so that in a few

minutes scarcely one was to be seen. Where they came from and

how they congregated so rapidly appeared quite a mystery.

I obtamed a perfectly-formed egg from a female Hudynamis

orientalis shot near Jessore in April, at which station five young

Viverra zibetha were brought to me durmg the same month, as

the young of Canis aureus. They had been dug out of a hole in

the side of a bank, and appear not uncommon in this neigh-

bourhood or at Dacca, where several adult specimens were

brought to me, as well as of a Paradoxurus, which I have

every reason to believe is P. musanga, although the ascribed ha-

bitat of this latter species is the Indian Archipelago. Specimens

of Herpestes griseus are occasionally obtained, but by no means

common ; the Pteropus edwards, Megaderma lyra, Nycticejus

castaneus, Cynopterus marginatus, and Taphozous longimanus

are very plentiful; the Azrwoula pictus, of which I obtained

and saw but two specimens, is excessively rare at Dacca. This

elegant Bat is found in thick jungle, and is only observed when

disturbed, by suddenly flying out of its retreat and taking almost

immediate shelter like a moth among the bushes; the pre-

vailing colour of this species is a bright orange, marked with

black on the wings ; this orange colour fades after the death of

the animal into a dirty yellowish tint.

I have already mentioned that the Sciwrus palmarum is wn-

172 Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca.

known at Dacca, but it is replaced by a fine species found in the

jungles and by no means uncommon. The European residents as

well as the natives appeared not to know of the existence of this

animal, and were astonished at my bringing home several speci-

mens ; they were also found in mango topes and small orchards.

This Squirrel is decidedly not S. lokriah of Hodgs., and appears

to differ from S. lokroides of Hodgs., to which however it bears

a strong resemblance and is closely allied. I would therefore, if

the species is new, and I have every reason to believe it

is, suggest for it the name of S. blythii, after my esteemed friend

E. Blyth, Esq. The colour of this Squirrel is of a peculiar yel-

low-gray above; the whole of the under surface, as well as the

inner side of the legs, are of a light gray; on the back the yel-

lowish hue is most perceptible, ‘sprinkled over with abundance

of minute black marks ; the whiskers are black ; eyes full, bril-

hant and dark ; the tail bushy and carried over the back ; the

inner part of the thighs is brownish; the entire length of the

animal is 15 inches, of which the tail measures alone 7}. They

are by no means timid, but after bemg once disturbed and

alarmed, run and hide among the branches and are most difficult

to obtain.

One of the most common species of Mammalia, and which

cannot fail to attract the notice of the most unobservant, are the

common tame Otters of the fishermen in this neighbourhood

(Lutra chinensis) ; several are kept by each family for the express

purpose of catching fish, and the nicety with which they train and

educate these Otters is ‘extraordinary. I have invariably found

them fishing in small streams, branches of rivers, or swamps ; the

method adopted is as follows :—a boat is usually fastened to a

stake a few yards from the bank, the sides of the boat seldom

exceeding a few inches in height from the surface of the water ;

the Otters, usually two or three, jump overboard and swim about

the neighbourhood of the boat, diving and catching fish ; these

they carry to the side of the boat and drop in; the sport con-

tinues for several hours, the fishermen in the meantime remaining

on shore otherwise engaged. Another mode adopted for fishing

with Otters is to train these animals to drive fish into nets placed

for that purpose.

The large Bengal Tiger (Felis tagris) and the common Leopard

(Felis leopar dus) are by no means uncommon, both species fre-

quently visitmg the neighbourhood of cantonments sufficiently

near to render their presence anything but agreeable to the

inhabitants. Leopards have been shot within the boundaries of

cantonments. I had a magnificent specimen of Felis viverrinus

sent to me. ‘This species appears very rare, few of the older

residents being aware of its occurrence at Dacca; the party who

Capt. R.C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca. 173

brought it in persisted im believing it to be a variety of the

common leopard, so large was this magnificent specimen in its

dimensions.

Amongst the small Mammalia, the common House Rat requires

further comparison ; it is decidedly closely allied to Mus indicus,

but of a considerably darker colour. This dark colour has also

been remarked in specimens of Mus indicus received from south-

ern India; but as the species found at Dacca seems to differ

from both, to which, however, it is closely allied, I would suggest

for it the name of Mus daccaensis, provided it is, as I have

every reason to believe it to be, an undescribed species. The

Sorex murinus, or common Musk Rat of Europeans, is very

abundant, frequenting houses and other suitable localities.

When I arrived at Dacea, the number of Megalaima lineata

about cantonments surprised me not a little; the call of this

bird, which is a very abundant species, might be expressed thus :

kootur’r kootur’r kootur’r, heard incessantly at intervals during

the day. The Megalaima asiatica is not to be found, at least

during the months I remained at Dacca. Several young of the

former species were brought to me alive in the month of June;

they live and thrive well in confinement, feeding freely on

fruit, milk and bread, &c.; however, they are disagreeable

pets, from the incessant noise they make. The Centropus

lathami is also a common bird, found in bush jungle ; the calls

of this species vary, and are curious; one resembling the bark

of the Bengal Fox (Vulpes bengalensis), whilst the other might

be imitated thus: clack, clack, clack, clack, clack, gouk, gouk,

gouk, gouk, kurr, kurr, kurr, kurr, kurr, clack, clack, &c. 1 was

fortunate in obtaining the nest and egg of this bird during the

month of June; the eggs are pure white, and very round in

formation. The nest, which was composed of straw and grass,

resembled a large ball supported on sticks, with a hole in the

side for the bird to enter; the nest was well concealed, and with

great difficulty discovered.

The Leptoptilos argala and L. javanica occasionally visit this

neighbourhood. I was much interested im seeing in the pos-

esssion of Major Graham, the executive officer, a specimen of a

living Leptoptilos,—1 should say javanica, but the bird was so

young that I felt rather uncertain as to the exact species ;

from the scaly nature of the back feathers, it much resembled the

latter species. 1 am aware that the young of Leptoptilos argala

vary much in colour, judging from the young birds which visit

Bengal ; it is this, therefore, which causes me to hesitate about

the young specimen alluded to. Major Graham found two

young in the same nest, and not very far from Dacca; the nest

was on a high tree.

174 Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca.

There is a species of the genus Caprimulgus (C. albonotatus)

common in cantonments; they fly about dusk, frequently

sitting on the tops of houses, where they remain for hours

calling in a most disagreeable manner; their note resembles

gouch, gouch, gouch, varied occasionally by a hoarse sound resem-

bling burrrrr gurrrrr, &e. The Corvus culminatus is

equally plentiful with the Corvus splendens. I may here men-

tion that the Lora typhia, which is also common, assumes a

much blacker appearance than those obtained at Barrackpore.

The Sphenura striata, Arundinax olivaceus, and Malacocercus

earlei are by no means uncommon ; the latter are very plentiful,

and found chiefly in bush and grass jungle. I also received

good specimens of the following, comparatively speaking, com-

mon birds: Halcyon gurial, H. syrnensis, Spizactus limnaétus,

Pontoaétus ichthyaétus, Bubo umbratus,and Ketupa ceylonensis; the

last two are fine large species, the first being easily recognized from

the latter by its feathered feet, whereas the Ketupa ceylonensis has

a naked yellow tarsus. The Cuculus tenuirostris, Malacocercus

bengalensis, Anthus richardi, Copsychus saularis, Tephrodornis

pondicerianus, as well as Trichastoma abbotti, are by no means

uncommon ; the latter species I had no conception was found m

this part of Bengal, specimens having been received only from

Arracan: that they breed at Dacca is beyond a doubt, for I

obtained just-fledged young following the parent birds. The

Lanius nigriceps is a very plentiful species, and the only ex-

amples I have seen at Dacca of this genus.

Several fine specimens of the Hematornis cheela, and one ot

Aquila nevia, have been brought to me; the former are con-

stantly found near swampy ground, where specimens of the

Limosa egocephala, Charadrius virginicus, and Casarca rutila (the

Chuckwa-chuckwee of the natives, and the Brahminee Duck of

Europeans) are found. In the dense thick jungle, numbers of

the Zanclostomus tristis, Chrysomma sinense, Francolinus vulgaris,

and a local variety? of Turnix ocellatus are found ; occasionally

a few Oriolus indicus, Tantalus leucocephalus, and Plotus melano-

gaster visit the station. The Brachypternus aurantius | have not

seen, but find it plentifully replaced by the Micropternus phato-

ceps, which is very abundant. The specimens of the Tephro-

dornis pondicerianus are whiter over the eye than the specimens

I have received from elsewhere ; this seems to be merely a local

peculiarity. Numbers of Acridotheres griseus build in the old

temples and houses about the sepoys’ huts ; this is rather curious,

for at Mussoorie, in the Himalayas, they invariably select large

trees for their nests. It is not unusual, durmg the hours of

parade or drill in the morning, to see numbers of these birds

feeding fearlessly near the soldiers. This reminds me of what I

Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacea. 17

have frequently seen in the Acridotheres tristis and Sturnopastor

contra, that they become so accustomed, from living in the neigh-

bourhood of regimental target butts, as to allow the balls to pass

over them whilst they have fearlessly fed between the targets

and the soldiers practismg. Before the commencement of the

rainy season, a pair of Nettapus coromandelianus built their nest

amongst the branches of a large Peepul tree (Hicus religiosus)

in the very centre of cantonments; and what was most extra-

ordinary, the tree was situated at a great distance from water.

The birds occasionally brought for sale to the markets of the

city are very interesting: the Paleornis schisticeps, at all times

a rare bird in the markets of Bengal, are to be had; the Galli-

erex cristatus and Porzana akool may also be purchased ;—the

natives keep them in cages as pets. Captain Middleton sent me

a cage full of Nectarinia goalpariensis, which had been caught in

the neighbourhood ; these exquisite little creatures I kept for a

very long while, feeding them on water and sugar, bread and

milk, occasionally varying their diet with honey; the males sing

in captivity, and soon become familiar and confiding in their

dispositions. Few Nectarinia zeylonica are found, but the Nec-

tarinia asiatica are common; the latter breed amongst the

bushes ; two or three nests were brought to me.

In the long grass jungle for several days I observed a small

bird, excessively wild in its habit and apparently strong on the

wing, and very difficult to approach, flying about, a specimen of

which I eventually obtained, and subsequently several others, a

couple of which I sent to Edward Blyth, Esq., in Calcutta, and

which I took the liberty of calling after myself, namely Cisticola

tytlert. In Appendix 6. of his preface to the Catalogue of the

Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society, Caleutta, page xxvii,

in No. 1935, Cistecola erythrocephala, Mr. Blyth makes the fol-

lowing remark :—“ Albinoid, young? from the vicinity of Dacca,

presented by Captain Tytler, 38th B.N.I. (Qu. n. s. C. tytleri,

nobis.) ” I allude to this simply because I obtained several spe-

cimens, and feel perfectly satistied that it is distinct from Cisti-

cola erythrocephala (Jerdon, Blyth) from S. India; they were

observed to be building prior to my leaving Dacca.

In the neighbourhood of cantonments several specimens of

that curious animal, Caprolagus hispidus, were shot and sent to

me; the formation of this species resembles more the appearance

of a tail-less rat than a rabbit or hare. Many doubts arise in

the opinion of sportsmen as to its being good for food; but of

this fact there is not the slightest doubt, for its flesh is equal

to that of any hare. The ears are particularly short, and the

hair coarse and stiff. The other hares found at the station are

Lepus ruficaudatus, which are common, and another hare closely

176 Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca.

allied to Lepus nigricollis, but distinctly different, a specimen of

which I have already forwarded to E. Blyth, Esq., under the name

of Lepus tytleri, as I have every reason to believe it is a new

species ; they are not uncommon at Dacca. The circumstance

of my having been so unsettled since leaving Dacca has for the

present prevented my giving a minute description of this animal,

several specimens of which are in my collection, but I shall en-

deavour to do so as soon as possible.

Among other novelties obtained by me at this station I have

to enumerate two decidedly new species of birds. The first

is of the genus Megalurus?, for which I suggest the name of

Megalurus? verreauxii, after the Messrs. Verreaux of Paris, a

drawing of which I will endeavour to leave in the Museum of

the India House prior to my departure for India, as well as of

the other new birds described.

The next new species is of the genus Sturnopastor, closely

allied to Sturnopastor contra, but apparently different, being im

size slightly larger, and the black more spread over the entire

plumage, giving the bird a darker appearance than the other

species. At first I was induced to treat this bird as a mere cage

variety ; but after seeing three specimens, and each agreeing in

every respect with the others, | cannot help supposing and

believing it to be a new species; if so, I suggest for it the name

of Sturnopastor moore, after F. Moore, Ksq., Assistant, Museum,

East India House. The birds I saw came from the jungles

about Midnapoore and elsewhere of Lower Bengal. The natives

are not altogether unfamiliar with this bird: that it is not a

mere local variety is proved from the size being larger, and the

specimens coming from different localities.

Amongst the cage birds seen in the market, I remarked a

curious specimen of the genus Carpodacus, evidently a mere cage

variety of C. erythrinus, or the common Tootie of all India: the

colour of this bird showed symptoms of beimg a partially albi-

noid variety. I will however, if necessary, on a future occasion

remark more fully on this bird after making minute comparisons,

for the owner asserted that it was a distinct bird from the Tootie,

and a species well known about the foot of the Cherrapoonjie

range of mountains.

Before proceeding further, I will give an account of a remark-

able circumstance, and which appears difficult to account for :—

A sepoy of my regiment keeps several large scorpions ; these

animals he has always been in the habit of collecting ; whatever

his secret is, I know not, but it is interesting, for he allows the

scorpions to crawl over his hands, breast, and im fact all over

him; they never attempt to sting; besides which he puts them

on other people. I examined the stings mimutely; the tip of

On the Branchial Currents in the Lamellibranchiata. 177

each was perfect, and in no way rubbed or injured; the scor-

pions appeared healthy, and carried their tails in the usual

position. The sepoy asserted that he possessed the juice of a

bulbous root, which, when applied to a fresh-caught scorpion,

prevents it for the future from stinging; he also mentioned that

several of his family possess the same secret, but from the man-

ner in which he evaded my questions respecting the bulbous

root, I am inclined to doubt that portion of his assertion.

The domestic animals of Dacca are precisely similar to those

found at Barrackpore, with the exception of one solitary animal

worthy of attention, and which is called the Dacca Cow; they

are highly prized by natives, and the breed is not known to

many. All that I can gather respecting the history of this

domesticated animal is, that it is a breed introduced years ago ;

but when, and from what locality, no one knows. The colour

is invariably of a pure white, the tail long and bushy at the end ;

the animal is of a small size; eyes large, full and dark; skin

round the eyes of a pinkish hue, the same colour prevails on the

muzzle; they do not give any large quantity of milk, but are

prized highly as a breed, by the natives of the higher class. The

males are similar to the cow in appearance, both possessing little

or no symptoms of a hump. It is very rarely that these cattle

are permitted to leave the houses in which they are kept, nor

are they ever seen grazing in the fields; that they are totally

different from the cattle of the country is beyond a doubt, and I

regret that I could gain no satisfactory information about them.

The jungles of Dacca abound with imsects, nor have I seen a

finer field for the naturalist than this part of Bengal presents ;

the unhealthiness of the place, however, precludes all pleasure

from visiting it as a matter of choice. With these few brief

observations I now conclude my observations on the fauna of

Dacca, simply mentioning that on my return to Calcutta by

water, vd the Soonderbunds, I saw great numbers of Blagrus

leucogaster and Halcyon amauropterus; both species were ex-

tremely abundant.

XIX.—A Reply to some Statements of Dr. Williams on the con-

troversy respecting the Branchial Currents in the Lamelli-

branchiata. By JosHua Axper, Esq.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I nave read with much interest the series of papers “On the

Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals,”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 12

178 Mr. J. Alder on the Branchial Currents

by Dr. Williams, which have appeared from time to time in your

Journal. That on the Mollusca, however, published last month,

contains some statements, which, as they are not founded on

fact, and are likely to be injurious to the scientific reputation of

a brother naturalist, I take the liberty of endeavourmg to cor-

rect. JI allude to the remarks on Mr. Hancock. Dr. Williams

gives that gentleman due credit for most of his investigations

mto the mechanism of respiration in the Bivalves, but against

that praise he sets off certain errors which he alleges Mr. Han-

cock has committed, as follows :—‘“ By Mr. Hancock, represent-

ing one class of observers, it is maintained that the mbalent

current is set in motion exclusively by the action of vibratile

cilia seated on the lmmg membrane of the siphon itself. By

Mr. Clark this explanation is denied. The former naturalist

rests his theory upon the alleged demonstration of cilia on the

internal surface of the inhalent siphon, the latter upon obser-

vation of the currents.” “ Mr. Hancock is undoubtedly in error

in stating that the water entering this cavity is drawn im by cilia

of the siphon. The microscope disproves completely the assertion

that the internal lming membrane of the inhalent or extra-

branchial siphon is the scene of ciliated epithelium.” And con-

cerning the exhalent current it is stated, ‘ The uninterruptedness

of this current was supposed by Mr. Hancock to be due to the

action of cilia lming the interior of the siphon. The statement

of this distinguished naturalist in this particular is indisputably

erroneous. This siphon, like the im-current one, is no¢ lined with

vibratile epithelium.” Again, we find it stated that “ Mr. Han-

cock is inaccurate in affirming that a// the water which enters

this cavity travels exclusively along the inhalent or extra-branchial

siphon, and never, under any circumstance, through either the

ventral or pedal openings.”

Mr. Hancock has made none of the statements here imputed

to him. The only place where any of his opimions concerning

these points are expressed is in a joint paper with myself, “On

the Branchial Currents in Pholas and Mya,” read at the British

Association Meeting in 1851, and afterwards published in your

Journal*. Certainly no such statements are there made : indeed

the subject of cilia lining the siphons is not at all alluded to.

Dr. Williams, however, speaks of Mr. Hancock’s controversy

with Mr. Clark, from which, and his not mentioning my name

in connexion with it, I am led to infer that he attributes to

Mr. Hancock a series of letters that I wrote in your Journal on

the subject. These letters bear my signature, and for anything

therem contained, I alone am responsible. Presuming that

* 2nd Ser. vol. vii. p. 370,

in the Lamellibranchiata. 179

Dr. Williams has made this mistake, I may be permitted to say

that he has not correctly stated the opinions there advocated.

The letters arose from the denial by Mr. Clark of the correctness

of a statement I made in a notice of Kellia rubra, that the ante-

rior tubular fold in that species performed the office of an ingress

siphon. The controversy arising out of it led to the expression

of our different views on the theory of branchial and siphonal

currents. I contended for the reception and discharge of these

currents by separate apertures (or in separate portions of the

cloak where two apertures do not exist), and that by the action

of cilia; but not by the cilia lining the siphons alone, as will be

evident from the following extracts. In the first letter my views

are thus stated:—‘“ The inhalent is always kept distinct from

the exhalent current, and admitted by a separate aperture from

that by which the latter is expelled. This seems to be neces-

sary, as the currents, being caused by the motion of the branchial

cilia, and not by the expansion and contraction of the walls of a

cavity, are continuous in one direction*.” In my second letter I

add a note to this effect :—“ The internal surface of these siphons

is usually (perhaps always) covered with vibratile cilia, more

minute than those of the branchiz, but acting in conjunction with

them in producing the currents. Mr. Cocks informs me that he

can see the cilia in the anterior tube of Kellia suborbicularis, with

a lens of 1 inch focus+.” These statements surely cannot be

taken to imply that the currents are produced by the cilia lining

the tubes alone ; and where does Dr. Williams find Mr. Hancock’s

alleged demonstration of cilia” on these organs? The exist-

ence of cilia lining the internal walls of the siphons had been

previously noticed by Mr. Garner and other authors; and not-

withstanding the decided opinion now given by Dr. Williams

against this view, I still believe that it is correct ; but however

this may be, the well-earned scientific reputation of Mr. Hancock

cannot be brought in question by the result.

With respect to the apertures by which the water is admitted,

I have stated, from the evidence of repeated observations (and in

this Mr. Hancock’s observations agree with my own), that the

regular current for the supply of the branchiz passes in by the

branchial siphon, when it exists, and instances are adduced

where, when a strong current was passing in by that siphon, no

motion of the water was perceptible opposite the pedal opening.

We have nowhere asserted, however, as stated by Dr. Williams,

“that all the water travels exclusively along the inhalent siphon,

* Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. vol. iii. p. 384.

T 2nd Ser. vol. iv. p. 51.

} Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iit. p. 298.

12*

180 Mr. J. Alder on the Branchial Currents

and never, under any circumstance, through the ventral or pedal

opening.” On the contrary, I admit the flowing m of water

through all the apertures (not voluntarily closed) as a natural

consequence of the opening of the valves*, which action the ani-

mal has of course frequent occasion to perform. I have stated,

too, in recording my observations on Turtonia minuta, that “ at

first the water was observed to pass into the widely-open mantle

of this little mollusk at all parts of the base of the shell + ;” and

that “in Montacuta bidentata the principal ingress current is

decidedly anterior, though the water is admitted occasionally

through the whole length “of the open mantlet.” 'The occasional

expulsion through all the orifices 1s treated as an acknowledged

fact throughout ; the only reservation I make is that it must be

considered an occasional action, unconnected with the regular

branchial currents. Myr. Hancock has also distinctly stated in

his paper on Chamostrea that, when the valves are suddenly

closed and the siphons withdrawn, the contained water will

escape by the pedal opening and the minute fourth opening,

which is found in this and some other bivalves with closed

mantles §. In our jomt paper “On the Branchial Currents in

Pholas and Mya,” a description is given of the action of the

currents, observed in an individual of Mya arenaria, in situ.

This instance is adduced in illustration of the general law of the

distinct and simultaneous action of separate currents through

the siphons. The question of occasional action under different

circumstances or in other families is not gone into, so that no

such extreme opinion on this matter as Dr. Willams attributes

to Mr. Hancock, can, by any fair construction of words, be de-

duced from it. Indeed the holding of such opimions we both

distinctly deny. Concerning this joint paper I take the oppor-

tunity of stating that, Mr. Clark having brought forward the

non-connexion of the branchial and anal chambers in Pholas as

a proof that the currents could not pass in at one siphon and out

at the other, I felt myself unable, from the want of sufficient

skill in delicate anatomical investigations, to give a correct solu-

tion of the difficulty, though aware of the fact of communication

from repeated observation of the currents. I therefore had re-

course to the assistance of my friend Mr. Hancock. The result

was the discovery of the communication existing through the

minute network of the gills, which Dr. Williams rightly attri-

butes to Mr. Hancock. He considers it very extraordinary,

however, that Mr. Hancock should not have been aware of the

discovery of the same fact by Dr. Sharpey, published ten years

* Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. vol. iv. p. 49. T Vol. iv. p. 243.

t Vel: v.p3211. § Vol. xi. p. 106.

in the Lamellibranchiata. 181

before. The pomted manner in which this is put may suggest

to some persons a doubt on the subject. But why should Dr.

Williams express so much surprise in this instance, when he

must know that Dr. Sharpey’s discovery has been overlooked by

every subsequent writer on the ceconomy of the Lamellibranchiata

up to the present time? Nay, there appears some reason

to believe that Dr. Williams himself may have been amongst the

number, for at the same Meeting of the British Association at

which our paper, now acknowledged to contain the true theory

of branchial action, was read, a paper by Dr. Williams on the

same subject was also read, in which it is stated as the result of his

researches, “ That the branchial siphon acts in drawing in water

into the chamber of the mantle by the dilating of the valves of

the shell ;” and “ That a part of the water which is thus drawn

into the branchial chamber zs swadlowed, and eventually rejected by

the fecal orifice, and that the rest is expelled by the orifice in the

mantle, and in part by the branchial orifice*.” Had Dr. Williams

been then aware of Dr. Sharpey’s discovery of the passage of the

water through the gills, he could scarcely have had recourse to

the extraordinary idea that the water found its way into the

anal chamber through the intestine. Curiously enough, it is

announced in the same paper as another of the conclusions come

to, “That in Pholas the siphons are richly lined with vibratile

cilia, as well as the branchial plates.”

There can be no doubt, now that the passage is pointed out,

that Dr. Sharpey had got hold of the true explanation of the

branchial currents, m examining the common Mussel, and that

the right of priority must be assigned to him. That his dis-

covery has remained so long unnoticed probably arises, partly

from its being introduced under the head of ‘ Cilia,’ where we

should not expect to find new views on the structure and ceco-

nomy of the bivalve mollusks, and partly from the modest man-

ner in which the facts are stated, without attention bemg drawn

to the points where they differ from the accounts of other ob-

servers. For ourselves it may be necessary to say, that we had

not seen the article by Dr. Sharpey, as in the library we consult

for books not in our own, that of the Literary and Philosophical

Society of Neweastle, the volume of the ‘ Cyclopedia of Ana-

tomy,’ containing the article ‘ Cilia, was lost in 1848 (before we

turned our attention to the subject) and has never been replaced.

Had we known that it contained any original matter on the ceco-

nomy of the Bivalves, we should certainly have made a point of

procuring a sight of it, as we have done since the appearance of

Dr. Williams’s remarks.

* Report Brit. Assoc. for 1851, p. 82.

182 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

My sole object in the present communication bemg to vindi-

cate Mr. Hancock from the charges of error brought against

him, which I trust I have now done satisfactorily, I shall leave

the discussion of controverted points to some future opportunity.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your obedient servant,

JosHuA ALDER.

Neweastle-upon-T yne, 19th August 1854.

XX.—On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq.,

F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

[Continued from p. 141.]

2. Mesocorg. Corolla infundibuliformis, limbi laciniis dimidium

tubi superantibus, sed ejus longitudinem non excedentibus.

A. GERONTOGE.

* Stamina levia. Sp. 389 ad 41.

39. Lycium Barbarum, Linn. ex parte, non aliorum; Dunal in

DC. Prodr. xiii. 511, cum synonymiis variis ibi relatis.—In

Persia Australi, Scinde et Afghanistan.—v. s. in herb. Hook.

Abouschir (Aucher Eloy, n. 5037). —Dalechi, distr. Abouschir

(Kotschy, n. 166).—Afghanistan (Griffiths, n. 670 et 672).

—Scinde, Kurdigass (Dr. Stocks, n. 995).

This species was well distinguished by Linneus, though con-

founded by other botanists and horticulturalists with L. vulgare

and L. Europeum, from which it is marked by very peculiar

characters. It is very spinose, with flexuose, knotty, crooked

branches, its splitting bark being of a glaucous whitish or brown-

ish hue; the nodes are large and very prominent, often woolly :

the leaves, three to five in each axillary fascicle, are linear, obtuse,

spathulate at base, diminishing into a short slender petiole ; they

are 5 to 10 lines long and 1 to 14 line broad; three to five

flowers spring out of each fascicle ; the peduncle is very slender,

5 lines long; the campanular and somewhat scarious calyx 1s

very thin in texture, of a pale glaucous hue, is 1} line broad and

long, at first with five short minute teeth, but they become irre-

gularly cleft into one, two, or three longer fissures: the corolla

is thin in texture, funnel-shaped, the tube, contracted a little

above the base, being 3 lines long, and the five equal, smooth,

oblong segments of its border being 2 lines in length: the sta-

mens inserted below the middle of the tube are quite smooth,

one being shorter, reaching the mouth, while the other four are

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 183

a little longer and somewhat exserted ; the immature berries are

slightly obovate, apiculated at the summit, and barely 2 lines in

diameter. No. 670, from Afghanistan, has a much paler and

smoother bark. The specimen from Kurdigass appears to have

grown luxuriantly in a moist situation, for the leaves are much

larger, and frequently solitary in each axil, being 14 inch long,

and 8 to 5 lines broad*. ;

40. Lycium Turcomanicum, Turczan. MSS. sp. adhue indescripta ;

—ramis virgatis, ramulis apice in spinis abeuntibus, axillis

sepe nodosis et ramulis spimescentibus aphyllis; foliis soli-

tariis 2—3nisve, oblongis vel lanceolato-oblongis, glaberrimis,

evenlis, imo cuneatis: floribus parvis, solitariis, interdum binis

ternisve, brevissime pedunculatis, calyce late cupuliforme in-

zequaliter 5-dentato, dentibus acutis, sparse ciliatis, corolle

tubo striato imo valde contracto, superne late infundibuliformi,

glabro, limbi laciniis 5, ovatis, tubo tertio brevioribus, margine

subciliatis, staminibus 5, inzequalibus, exsertis, filamentis om-

nino glabris, medio tubi insertis, 3 paullo longioribus, laciniis

limbi zquantibus.—Turcomania.—». s. in herb. Hook. (Turc-

zaninow).

A plant bearing greatly the aspect of the specimens of L. Bar-

darum, from Scinde and Afghanistan ; differing in its more an-

gular branches, the shorter peduncles of its flowers, and the

proportions of its floral parts. The larger leaves measure 14

inch in length, 5 lines in breadth; the peduncle is 14 line long,

the calyx 1 line long and broad, the tube of the corolla 2 lines

long, and the segments of its border 1] line in lengtht.

41, Lycium Edgeworth, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xiii. 525 ;—intri-

catissimo-ramosum, spinosum, cortice cretaceo rimoso: cet.

ut in char. citat. except. in sequentibus ; corolla extus glabra,

sed intus circa insertionem staminum szpe pilosiuscula, fila-

mentis omnino glabris, circa medium tubi insertis, 2 minori-

bus faucem attingentibus, 3 longioribus exsertis.—Beloo-

chistan.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (in montibus sursum Kelat,

versus Johan.) Dr. Stocks, n. 1117.

This species is probably widely distributed through Scinde,

Cabul, and Upper India: the habit of Dr. Stocks’ plant is dif-

ferent from the specimen from the Punjaub, collected by Mr.

Edgeworth, according to the description above quoted of M. Du-

nal: the former is very thorny, of bare and stunted growth, with

* Sectional details of this species are shown in the ‘ IIlustr. South Amer.

Plants,’ vol. ii. plate 69 D.

ft This plant with an analysis of its flower is represented (Joc. cit.)

plate 69 FE.

184. Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

twisted and interlaced branches and small leaves, and has evi-

dently grown in an exposed and arid situation; while the latter

has long, slender, virgate branches, and abundant foliage of much

larger leaves, and was apparently produced in a damp and sheltered

places, favourable to its more luxuriant growth. Dr. Stocks’

specimens present more the aspect of L. Barbarum, but are

distinguished by their much shorter peduncles. more fleshy

leaves, and a generally more tartareous appearance; the very

flexuose divaricating branches are covered with a splittmg bark

of a cretaceous hue, with fascicles of few leaves (three to six)

proceeding out of the knotty base of the axillary spmes: the

leaves are linear, obtuse at the summit, tapering below into a

short petiole; they are remarkably thick and fleshy, of a pale

glaucous hue, 4 to 9 lines long and 2 line broad: one to five

flowers grow out of each fascicle; the peduncle is 2 lines long ;

the pale glaucous, tubular calyx, often unequally cleft, is 1} lme

long: the tube of the corolla, greatly contracted in its lower

moiety and funnel-shaped above, is 3 lines long, the oblong

segments of its border being 2 lines in length ; it is quite smooth,

excepting a little appearance of pubescence about the insertion of

the stamens, which are unequal in length, the filaments being

quite smooth, one not extending beyond the mouth of the tube,

two of the length of the segments, and the other intermediate ;

the style is the length of the longer stamens. It will be seen

how little this structure differs from L. Barbarum, and it might

be almost considered as a mere variety of that species, from

which it is easily distinguishable by the characters above enu-

merated*.

KK Staminibus imo hirsutis.

42. Lyctum Ruthenicum, Murray, Comm. Gott. 1779, p. 2.

tab. 2; Willd. Sp. 1. 1058; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xin. 514,

cum aliis synon. (excl. LZ. Tataricum).—In Siberia et Russia

Australi.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Mare Caspico) ex herb. Acad.

Petropol.—(Iberia orientali) W. Busen ;— et in herb. Lindley,

Hort. Chisw. cult. sub nom. L. carnosum.

A plant completely with the habit of L. Barbarum, but dif-

fering in the structure of its flowers. The stems are smooth,

very pale, flexuose, with spinose spreading branchlets; the axils

are nodose; the leaves, two to four in each axillary fascicle, 8 to

15 lines long and 1 to 23 lines broad, are quite smooth and

fleshy : several flowers spring out of each fascicle ; the peduncles

are 2—23 lines long, the calyx 1 line, the tube of the corolla

3 lines, the segments of the border 2 lines; the filaments are

* This plant with its floral analysis is drawn (/oc. cit.) in plate 69 F.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 185

inserted about the middle of the tube, and are hirsute towards

the base, smooth above, reaching the extremities of the border-

segments*.

*k& Staminibus imo fascicula pilorum barbatis. Sp. 43 ad 47.

43. Lyciumvulgare, Dunal in DC. Prodr.xiii.509,cum omn.synon.

ibi citat. Lycium Chinense, Miller, Dunal in DC. ibidem, 510,

cum suis respectivis synon. Lycium megistocarpum, Dunal,

ibid. cum synon. seed subglobosum, Dunal, ibid. Lycium

Cochinchinense, Lour. ; Dunal ut supra citat ;—fruticosum,

erectum, glabrum, inerme, vel seepe sparse spinosum, ramulis

angulatis, virgatis, arcuato-nutantibus ; foliis subalternis,

rarius fasciculatis, ovatis, vel ellipticis, apice subacutis, vel

obtusis, imo cuneatis, vel in petiolum tenuem spathulatis,

junioribus lanceolatis: floribus ex axillis solitariis, aut 2 ad

6, pedicello filiformi, flore longiori, calyce tubulari, breviter

5-dentato, seepe in laciniis 2-3 rupto, glabro, textura tenui,

dentibus margine subciliatis, corollze tubo imo coarctato, mox

infundibuliformi, limbi lacinius oblongis, striato-reticulatis,

violaceis, expansis, tubo fere equilongis; staminibus 5, fere

eequalibus, exsertis, filamentis in tubi constrictionem insertis,

hine geniculatis et glabris, mox fascicula densa pilorum bar-

batis, superne glabris et filiformibus, apice laciniarum attin-

gentibus: bacca rubro-aurantiaca, ovata, vel conico-oblonga,

seepe incurva, calyce fisso suffulta.— Ubique in Europa australi,

Africa et Asia, preesertim in China.—. s. in herb. variis, spe-

cim. plurimis ex Europa. In herb. Hook., China (Fortune, 48

et 57). Loo-choo (Beechey).

On comparing original specimens from China with those of

European growth and those of Western Asia, I cannot detect

the smallest essential difference between them ; and on examining

carefully all the details registered concerning the various species

above comprehended in this one, I cannot discover any character

that can possibly separate them, except such small variations in

the shape of the leaves as we frequently meet with in the same

specimen: in the length and number of the peduncles, the form

of the calyx, the structure of the corolla, and especially of the

stamens, and in the size, shape, and colour of the fruit, they

closely resemble one another: under such circumstances it ap-

pears to me desirable to unite them all under one common spe-

cific character. The observation of M. Dunal almost confirms

this, for he states that this species has in all likelihood been in-

troduced into Europe from the East, which is rendered more

* This species is shown (Joc. cit.) plate 70 A.

186 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

probable from the record of its bemg used from the earliest

periods by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans for ornamental

hedgings. In favourable positions the leaves often attain a size

of 21 inches in length, including the petiole, and 14 inch in

breadth; the peduncles are 4 to 6 lines long, the calyx 2 lines,

the tube of the corolla 3 lines, the segments of the border 24

lines, and the stamens extending beyond the mouth of the tube

24 lines; the berry is from 5 to 8 lines long and 4 lines broad.

Intermediate with ‘the globular fascicles upon the stamens, an

equal number of tufts of hair are seen on the tube of the

corolla, upon the central nervure that runs from the apex of each

segment to the base: an excellent analysis of the flower is given

in Nees’ Flor. Germ. Several varieties, cultivated by gardeners

under the names of L. ovatum, Trewianum, carnosum, latifolium,

&c., may be referred here*.

44, Lycium Kraussit, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xii. 517.—C.B.8.

Of this species I am unable to form an opinion, not having

met with any specimen that corresponds with the description

given, as above cited: M. Dunal appears to doubt its being a

valid species, and asks whether it may be only a variety of L.

cinereum, Thunb.

45. Lycium rigidum, Thunb. Prodr. 37; Linn. Trans. ix. 152,

tab. 14; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xii. 522.—C.B.S.

I have not met with any specimen that corresponds with this

plant of Thunberg, although M. Dunal describes a specimen from

the collection of M. Drege: I infer from that description that it

must belong to this section. It is evident however that many

Cape plants that have been referred to this species do not belong

to it: for instance, the variety y. angustifolium of M. Dunal (loc.

cit. p. 523), from Drége’s collection, sub nom. L. rigidum, and

which I find also under this name in Sir. W. Hooker’s herbarium,

is manifestly a specimen of L. Afrum: so also from the same

collection a plant distributed under the name of L. campanula-

tum, E. Mey., and referred by M. Dunal to L. rigidum, var.

B. latifolium-grandiflorum, from the specimen in Sir W. Hooker’s

herbarium, is also L. Afrum: it is not unfair to conclude that

the other variety, a. latifolium-parviflorum, belongs to some other

species.

46. Lycium Requienit, Dunal in DC. Prodr. xi. 520.—Patria

ignota.

This plant, cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Montpelier

* This species with sectional details is given (Joc. cit.) in plate 70 B.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 187

under the name of L. carnosum, is probably of African origin.

From M. Dunal’s description I have placed it in this section.

47. Lycium prunus spinosi, Dunal in DC. Prodr. xu. 515.—

C.B.S. (Drége, n. 7871).

I have not seen a specimen of this species, but from M. Dunal’s

account of it 1 have stationed it here.

eK Hilamenta bast glandula lineari fimbriata donata.

Sp. 48 ad 49.

48. Lycwum Tataricum, Pallas, Flor. Russ. 1. 78. tab. 49. L.

Ruthenicum, Dunal (non Murr.) in Prodr. DC. xii. 514 ;—

fruticosum, slaberrimum, intricato-spmosum, ramulis pallidis,

flexuosis, nodis spinescentibus, approximatis ; folus plurimis

(6-8) fasciculatis, liearibus, spathulatis, obtusis, carnosulis ;

floribus e fasciculis solitariis, rarius geminis, calyce pedunculo

breviori, poculiformi, subscarioso, mzequaliter 3-4-fisso, laci-

niis rotundatis, corolla imo coarctata, superne infundibuliforme,

limbi laciniis oblongis, tubo 2—3tio brevioribus, staminibus

exsertis, filamentis imo in glandulam linearem margine ciliatam

expansis.—Rossica australis—v. s. mm herb. Hook. ex herb.

Pallas.

This is certainly very distinct m the structure of its flowers

from L. Ruthenicum: the nodes are about + inch apart, the spines

of the same length, the leaves 3 to 5 lines long, and barely a line

broad: the pedicels are 3 lines, the calyx 13 line, the tube of the

corolla 3 lines, the segments of the border 2 lines long; the sta-

mens, inserted in the lower portion of the tube, have a long basal

expansion which is ciliated on the margin; the stamens are

equal, and nearly attain the length of the segments*.

49. Lycium ferocissimum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, ramosissimum,

glaberrimum, ramis griseo-pruinosis, ramulis horizontaliter

divaricatis, validis, apice spinosis, spinis giganteis efforman-

tibus, exillig eloboso-nodosis ; foliis e nodis fasciculatis, ob-

ovato- vel oblongo-spathulatis, obtusis, carnosulis ; floribus e

fasciculis solitartis vel binis, longe pedunculatis, calyce tubu-

loso, majusculo, carnoso, breviter 5-dentato, dentibus margine

ciliatis, imo longiusculo, corollz tubo infundibuliformi, imo

angustato, calyce vix longiori, limbi laciniis 5, oblongis, reti-

culato- -venosis, tubo fere cequalibus ; staminibus in constric-

tionem tubi insertis, filamentis imo geniculatis et in glandulam

linearem margine densissime tomentosam expansis, superne

fds representation of this plant with floral sections is shown (Joc. cit.)

in plate 70 C.

188 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

glabris, ineequalibus, 2 versus apicem, 3 ad medium limbi

attingentibus; stylo staminibus majoribus «quante: bacca

pisi magnitudine, calyce fisso suffulta.—C.B.S.—+. s. in herb.

_ Hook. Uitenhag (Harvey, n. 105).

This is a species evidently allied to L. rigidum, Thunb., dif.

fering in its thick gigantic spines, its broader leaves, its much

bigger calyx and larger flowers. The spines are from 2 to 23

inches long; the leaves are 6-10 lines long, 24-4 lines broad ;

the peduncle 4 lines long, the calyx 3 lines long and 23 lines in

diameter ; the tube of the corolla is a trifle longer than the calyx,

and the segments of the border about the same length; the berry

is globular, 3 lines in diameter*.

B. N&oce#.

* Stamina levia.

50. Lycium capillare (n. sp.) ;—fruticulosum, inerme, ramulis

virgatis, valde gracilibus, horizontaliter divaricatis, albo-pu-

bescentibus, lineis helvolis e nodis utrinque decurrentibus

angulato-striatis: foliis fasciculatis (5-8), e nodis cupularibus

capillari-linearibus, minutissime pubescentibus, carnosulis ;

floribus solitariis, parvulis, pedunculo gracili, calyceque parvo,

poculiformi, 5-striato, 5-dentato, subpubescente, dentibus

glabris, acutis : corolla tubulosa, glabra, tubo profunde 5-sul-

cato, limbi lacinis 5 oblongis, margine ciliolatis tubo paullo

brevioribus: staminibus eequalibus, exsertis, filamentis medio

tubi insertis, glabris, ad medium limbi attingentibus: bacca

pisi minoris magnitudine, rubra, calyce fisso suffulta—In

prov. Mendoze Argentinorum, in desertis salitrosis.—v. v.

I found this plant in the Travesia of Mendoza, a desert plain

near the foot of the Andes, and at La Dormida, in the same

province. It is a very distinct species, not only on account of

its extremely capillary leaves, but of its perfectly glabrous sta-

mens. The leaves are about 4 lines long and 4th of a line broad :

the capillary peduncle is 2 lines long, the calyx 3 line, with

teeth one-third of its whole length; the tube of the corolla is

rather broad, is deeply sulcated opposite the stamens, and is

3 lines long, the lobes of the border being 2 lines in length;

the thick, fleshy, smooth filaments are 2} lines long; the berry

is somewhat ovate and apiculate, 2 lines long t.

*k Stamina tmo hirsuta. Sp. 50 ad 54.

51. Lycium floribundum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xm. 513.—In

* This species with analytical details is given (Joc. cit.) in plate 70 D.

+ This species with sectional details is drawn (/oc. cit.) in plate 70 E.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 189

prov. Mendozee (ad Jarillal circa Mendozam) et in prov. Sanctz

Ludovice Argentinorum (ad Alto del Yeso) (mihi lectum) ;

circa Mendozam (Bacle in herb. Moricand) ; Chile, in herb.

Lindley ; ad Coquimbo (MacRae).

The name of floribundum is ill applied to this very distinct

species, for it is generally very sparse of flowers, although Bacle’s

specimen, like that collected by me at the Alto del Yeso, may

have presented more flowers than usual. It is of very straggling

growth, the tortuous branches spreading out at right angles:

the spines are generally ? inch long, and slightly bent and

recurved ; they are all covered with a whitish pubescent bark,

marked by reddish longitudinal lines, decurrent from the angles

of each cup-shaped node: the spines have many gemmiferous

axils; the leaves are fasciculate in each closely approximate node,

are spathulately ovate, fleshy, covered with short, simple, and

glandular hairs, mixed together, and proceeding out of as many

whitish rugous spots; they are 2-24 lines long, 3-1 line broad ;

the flowers are solitary in each fascicle, } line long; the calyx is

pubescent, tubular, 2 lines long, half-cleft into five rather equal,

lanceolate acute teeth, which are somewhat recurved at their

apex: the tube of the corolla is cylindrical, and slightly funnel-

shaped above, but constricted a little above the base, is 24 to 3

Imes long, and is covered with short glandular hairs; the seg-

ments of the border are oblong, and 1} line long: the stamens

are inserted about the middle of the tube; the filaments are

hirsute at base, smooth above; the two shortest reach the

middle, the three longer attain the extremity of the segments:

the style is even longer: the corolla, as in other species of this

genus, breaks off by a circumscissile line above its base, leaving

the ovary half surrounded by a cup-shaped process. In the spe-

cimen from El Alto del Yeso, the spines are fertile to the

-extremity, the leafy fascicles being only 1 line apart: the berry

is globular, apiculated, 14 line diameter. The specimen from

Coguimbo agrees in all respects with the others, except that the

ramifications are more intricately branched and spinose ; the bark

is darker, more striated and pubescent, and the leaves are smaller ;

the axillary nodes, however, are equally approximate, and the

flowers are exactly similar in size and structure*.

52. Lycium rachidocladum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xiii. 519 ;—in-

tricato-ramosum, spimosum, ramulis rufeseente-roridis, glan-

dulis glutinoso-resinosis et pilis articulatis vestitis, spinis

junioribus acutis, gemmiferis, adultioribus tortuoso-ramifor-

mibus : foliis parvis, obovatis, carnosis, apice rotundis, imo in

* A drawing of this plant with floral sections is given (Joc. cit.) in plate

70 F

190 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

petiolum tenuem spathulatis, utrinque viscoso-puberulis, pilis

crebris, brevissimis, crassiusculis, glanduliformibus; floribus

subsolitariis, breviter pedunculatis, calyce ineequaliter 4- rarius

5-fido, segmentis acutis, subreflexis, utrinque glanduloso-

pubescentibus ; corollze tubo extus glandulis brevibus farinoso-

puberulis, calyce 2plo longiore, infundibuliforme, limbi laci-

niis 5, oblongis, margine ciliatis, tubo brevioribus : stami-

nibus 5 inzequalibus, 3 longioribus laciniis equilongis exsertis,

filamentis tenuibus, medio tubi insertis, imo geniculatis et

longe hirsutis, superne glabris : stylo exserto, cum ovario arti-

culato; ovario corolle reliquo semi-vestito.—Chile.—v. s. im

herb. Lindley (Coquimbo) MacRae.

This species differs little from L. floribundum, Dun., but its

branches are more intricately spreading and spinose, the bark

is darker and more farinose, the leaves are smaller and more

oblong; on the other hand, their axillary nodes are equally ap-

proximated, and there is no difference in the size or structure of

the flower. The leaves are 14 to 2 lines long, ? line broad; the

barren spines are 2 to 3 lines, the gemmiferous 4: to 6 lines or

longer ; the peduncle # line; the calyx 1} line long, cleft nearly

halfway into five very acute teeth; the tube of the corolla is 2

lines, and its segments 1} line long ; it is glabrous, except near

the point of insertion of the stamens: the filaments are pilose

at their base for a quarter of their length, three of them reach the

extremity of the segments, two are shorter ; the slender style is

the length of the longer stamens, and is articulated with the

ovarium*,

53. Lycium tenuispinosum (n. sp.) ;— fruticosum, intricato-ramo-

sum, ramulis helvolis, viscoso-puberulis, valde divaricatis,

tenuiter et crebre spinosissimis: folis minutis, fasciculatis,

anguste linearibus, viscoso-puberulis ; floribus e fasciculis soli-

tarlis, calyce tubuloso, pilis articulatis crebre pubescente, ultra

medium 5-fido, segmentis lanceolatis, subreflexis, pedunculo

gracili zquilongo ; corolla tubulosa, tubo calyce equante, parte

infimo cylindrico, attenuato, pilosulo, superiori inflato, glabro,

limbi laciniis tubo brevioribus, oblongis, staminibus exsertis,

filamentis supra medium insertis, hine geniculatis et hirsutis,

2 ultra faucem prolatis, 3 fere ad apicem lacimiarum extensis.

—Circa Mendozam in aridis petrosis.—. v.

This species, which I found near Mendoza, in the desert tract

called La Travesia, in many points resembles Z. floribundum and

rachidocladum, but is widely distinct. It is remarkable for its

almost denuded, slender, spreading branchlets, armed with short,

closely-set, neeedle-like spines ; they are generally 2 or 3 lines

* This species with analytical details is shown (/oc. cif.) in plate 71 A.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 191

long and 1 or 2 lines apart, furnished at their base with a fas-

cicle of four to six minute linear subulate leaves, barely } line

long ; a few of the fascicles bear a single flower, the peduncle of

which is 1} line long; the calyx is 24 lines long ; the tube of the

corolla measures 24 lines, and the segments of the border 1} line

in length ; the stamens are inserted above the middle of the

tube, where it is pubescent, they are considerably hirsute at

their lower part, and smooth above ; the hairs that clothe the

pedicel and calyx are dense and articulated; the style exceeds

the length of the stamens*.

54. Lycium stolidum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, glaberrimum, ramis

flexuosis, ramulis intricato-divaricatis, spinescentibus, cortice

rimoso, striato, griseo, nodis approximatis, spinis brevibus imo

foliosis ; foliis (2-5) fasciculatis, spathulato-linearibus, obtusis,

earnosulis, pallidis ; floribus e fasciculis binis, parvulis, pedun-

culo tenui, calyce parvo equaliter ac breviter 4-dentato, corolla

levi, pallida, textura tenui, tubo imo coarctato, superne sub-

campanulato, limbi laciniis 4, tubo vix dimidio longitudine,

oblongis, acutiusculis, reflexis ; staminibus 4, zequalibus, longe

exsertis, filamentis in contractionem basalem insertis, hinc

geniculatis et hirsutis, superne glabris, apice limbi attingen-

tibus, stylo «quilongis, tubo circa insertionem filamentorum

piloso ; bacca globosa, piso mimori, apiculata, calyce suffulta.—

Texas.—v. s. in herb. Hook. Paso del Norte (Wright, no. 540,

542),

A plant not unlike Z. Barbarum in habit. Owing to the close

approximation of the nodes, which are only } inch apart, the

leaves are somewhat crowded; they are 5 to 7 lines long, 1 line

broad ; the slender peduncle measures 22 lines, and the narrow

calyx 1 line; the tube of the corolla is 22 lines long, and the

reflexed broad segments of the border are | line in length; it is

thin in texture and pale when dried ; the filaments are inserted

above the basal contraction of the tube, are hirsute below, slender

and smooth above, and attain the length of the segments of the

border : the berries are small, apparently red, 2 lines in diameter,

and contain eight seeds, which are flattened; these have a heli-

cally spiral embryot.

EK Hilamenta paullo supra basin fasciculo pilorum donata.

Sp. 55 ad 58.

55. Lycium spinulosum (n. sp.) ;—virgato-ramosum, ramulis hel-

volis, striatis, pilosis, patentibus, tenuiter spinosis, inferioribus

* A representation of this plant, with analysis of its flowers, is given

(loc. cit.) in plate 71 B.

+ This species with floral sections is drawn (loc. cit.) in plate 71 C.

192 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

subnudis, superioribus foliiferis, axillis nodosis approximatis,

spinis acicularibus, gemmiferis ; foliis fasciculatis (2-5) ob-

longis, apice acutis, basi in petiolum brevissimum cuneatis,

valde crassis, utrinque pilosis, pilis brevibus articulatis, non-

nullis apice glandulosis ; floribus solitariis, pedunculo brevi,

calyce majusculo, glanduloso-piloso, pedunculo 3plo longiore,

tubuloso, ultra medium 5-fido, segmentis rigidis, lanceolatis,

acutissimis ; corolla glabra, tubo infundibuliformi calyce zequi-

longo, limbi laciniis fere dimidio brevioribus, oblongis ; sta-

minibus 5, longe exsertis, filamentis medio tubi insertis, hinc

geniculatis et glabris, mox infra faucem fasciculo pilorum bar-

batis, et ore claudentibus, 2 longioribus apice limbi attingen-

tibus, 3 paullulo brevioribus.—Circa Mendozam.—~. v.*

This plant, gathered by me in the Travesia of Mendoza, in the

year 1826, is certainly a distinct species: it bears greatly the

habit of LZ. tenuispinosum, but its branches are straighter, the

spines stronger, the leaves larger, the calyx of much greater size

and more rigid in its texture, and the stamens are of different

structure. It is at once distinguished by its peculiar calyx. The

spines measure 2 lines, the leaves, including the petioles, are 3

lines long and 1 line broad; the peduncle is 1 line; the calyx

3 lines in length, the tubular portion being only ? line ; the tube

of the corolla measures 3 lines, the segments of the border

2 lines.

Var. B. parvifolium, Gill. MSS., is a more intricately nodose

plant, becoming with age more glabrous ; the leaves are more

linear, smaller, 24 to 3 lines long, + line broad: the flowers do

not differ from the former in size or structure ; it was found by

Dr. Gillies in the Travesia, and is preserved in Sir Wm. Hooker’s

herbarium.

56. Lycium infaustum (n. sp.) ;-—intricato-ramosum, spinosum,

elaberrimum, ramulis pallidis, angulato-costatis ; folius paucis,

minutis, alternis vel fasciculatis, obovatis, vel spathulato-

oblongis, carnosulis, pallidis ; floribus solitariis, glabris, longe

et gracile pedunculatis, calyce parvulo, urceolato, crasso, bre-

viter 5-dentato, dentibus triangularibus, acutis ; corolla mfun-

dibuliformi, limbi laciniis ovatis, tubo brevioribus, staminibus

5 equalibus, longe exsertis, filamentis medio tubi insertis,

imo glabris et geniculatis, mox fasciculo pilorum barbatis et

faucem claudentibus, superne filiformibus, glabris, apice limbi

paullo excedentibus, tubo globulis 5 pilorum inter fasciculos

staminum alternantibus ; bacca globosa, coccinea, piso minor.

* A representation of this plant with analysis is given (Joc. cit.) in

plate 71 D.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lyciun. 193

—In Prov. Argentinorum Australioribus.—v. s. in herb. Hook.

( Tweedie.)

This plant was found by Tweedie in the southern portion of

the province of Buenos Ayres, always called by him Patagonia.

It is remarkable for its small ericoid leaves, which are 14 to 24

hnes long and 1 to 2 lines broad: the peduncle measures 2 lines,

the calyx 1 line, the tube of the corolla 3 lines, the segments of

its border 2 lines, all being quite smooth except the five barbate

tufts that alternate with the hairy pellets of the stamens*.

57. Lycium Marti, Sendtn. Flor. Bras. fase. 6. Sol. 154; Dunal

i DC. Prodr. xii. 512.—Brasilia (in Prov. Bahia) ad fluv.

S. Francisco prope Joazeiro.

58. Lycim Carolinianum, Mich. Fl. Bor. Amer. 1. 95; Walt. FI.

Carol. 84; Pursh, Fl. Amer. Sept. 1. 97; Dunal in DC. Prodr.

xi. 518. L. salsum, Bartr. Trav. 59. nee R.& P. L. qua-

drifidum, Moc. et Sessé, Ic. Mex. Coll. Cand. t.914. Panzera

Caroliniana, Gmel. Syst.1. 247 ;—fruticosum, merme, glaber-

rmum, ramulis rectis, striatis, rarius spinosis; foliis alternis,

rarius fasciculatis, spathulato-lanceolatis vel lmearibus, acutis

aut obtusiusculis, crassis, eventis ; floribus solitariis, folio bre-

vioribus, tetrameris, pedunculo elongato, calyce campanulato,

grosse 4-dentato, corolla czrulescente, tubo nfundibuliformi,

imo crassiore, supra basin constricto, limbi laciniis tubo bre-

vioribus, staminibus 4 subzequalibus, exsertis, filamentis longe

subtus medium tubi insertis, imo geniculatis et fascicula ob-

longa pilorum dense barbatis: bacca cerasi parvi magnitudine,

rubra.—America Septentrionalii—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Gal-

veston Bay, Tenessee) Drummond. (Rio Brazos, Texas) Drum-

mond. (New Orleans) Drummond, n. 234. (Circa Laredo)

Berlandier (wx. 1502 et 242). In herb. Lindley (Texas) Drum-

mond.

This well-known species, long since established upon very di-

stinct characters, appears to differ in no essential respect from

the plant described by Mogino and Sessé, and which may safely

be considered as identical with it, especially as J find the descrip-

tion of its fruit corresponds with the specimen above noticed

from New Orleans. The leaves are generally single and alter-

nate, from 7 to 18 lines long and 14 to 24 lies broad, narrow-

ing at the base into a short channelled petiole: the peduncle is

slender below, thicker at its apex, and is from 5 to 8 lines long ;

the cup-shaped calyx is nearly 2 lines in length, with four short

* This plant with floral details is shown (loc, cit.) in plate 71 E.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 13

194 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

triangular teeth, ciliated at their points, but it is afterwards split

irregularly into larger segments : the tube of the corolla is 3 lines

long, the oblong segments of its border 24 lines; the filaments ~

arise in the mouth of the basal constriction of the tube, and pre-

sent a dense oblong brush of hairs at their geniculated origin,

their summits attaining the length of the middle of the segments,

two of them being a trifle shorter ; the style far exceeds the length

of the stamens: the crimson globular or oval berry is somewhat

apiculated, and 5 lines in diameter*.

KK Kilamenta imo glandula lineari carnosa margine ciliata

donata. Sp. unica.

59. Lycium ignarum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, ramulis longe vir-

gatis, dependentibus, angulato-striatis, pallidis, rarissime spi-

nescentibus, nodis axillaribus cupulatis ; foliis alternis ternisve,

elliptico-oblongis, utrinque subattenuatis, subpallidis, textura

tenuibus, nervosis, utrinque sub lente albo-punctulatis, mar-

gine obsolete ciliatis, breviter petiolatis; floribus solitarius,

longe et gracilente pedunculatis, calyce urceolato, striato,

membranaceo, pubescente, eequaliter 5-dentato, dentibus lan-

ceolatis, acutis, tubo dimidio brevioribus ; corolla extus pubes-

cente, imo densiter tomentosa, sicco pallida, tubo infundibu-

liformi, calyce duplo longiore, limbi lacinis 5, reticulato-ner-

vosis, staminibus 5 zqualibus, exsertis, filamentis circa basin

tubi insertis, hine geniculatis et glandula adnata oblonga lati-

uscula margine ciliata donatis, superne membranaceis, gra-

datim angustioribus, vix apicem laciniarum attingentibus ;

stylo staminibus zquilongo; stigmate sub-2-labiato.—Patria

ignota: an America meridionali?—». s. in herb. Lindley in hort.

Soc. Hortic. cult. sub nomine L. Sinense.

This plant has much of the habit of L. erosum, and from many

peculiar points of analogy, I have little doubt is of South Ame-

rican origin. The leaves are 19 lines long and 7 lines broad,

the peduncle of the flower 44 lines, the calyx 2 lines, the teeth

being equal in length to the tube, the corolla 6 lines, the tube

being 3 lines long, and the segments of the border the same

lengthy.

* A representation of this species with structural details is given (/oc. cit.)

in plate 71 F.

+ This plant with analytical sections of the flower is shown (Joc. cit.) in

plate 72 A.

[To be continued. ]

Prof. Sedgwick’s Reply to Prof. Milne-Edwards. 195

XX1.- -Rejoinder to Professor Milne-Edwards and Mr. Bower-

bank. By Professor Sep@wick.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

On my return to the University, after an absence of almost

three months, I found that Professor Milne-Edwards and Mr.

Bowerbank had replied to my comment on “ two statements

published by the Palzontographical Society in their volume for

-1852*.” I now request you to publish my final, and short, re-

joinder, both to Professor Milne-Edwards and to my friend

Mr. Bowerbank.

I have the honour to be,

Gentlemen, ;

Your faithful Servant,

A. SEDGWICK.

Cambridge, August 21, 1854.

Rejoinder, &c.

So far as regards Professor Milne-Edwards, I have only to

request any Member of the Paleontographical Society carefully

to read over Professor M‘Coy’s letter to myself, and then to put

it side by side with Professor Milne-Edwards’s reply. That reply

does not so much as touch the facts and statements of Professor

M‘Coy’s clenching letter. The reader must, therefore, conclude,

that Professor Edwards can neither prove, nor make probable,

the charges he has insinuated against Professor M‘Coy, and con-

sequently that the insinuations recoil upon their author. Under

this entire conviction, I venture to call upon the Council of the

Paleeontographical Society, as a matter of common literary justice,

to disclaim the charges insinuated against Professor M‘Coy in

the 151st page of their volume for 1852.

My rejoinder to my friend Mr. Bowerbank need not be very

long. On one point (and one point only) he has the advantage

over me. He alludes to a “ short ” conversation he held with

me, during a public meeting at Ipswich (in 1850), when he made

a request for a loan of certain Cambridge corals. Of that

request I have no remembrance ; and, considering the occasion

* My comment (containing a letter from Prof. M‘Coy) was published

in the ‘ Annals’ for April 1854. The Replies of Professor Edwards and

Mr. Bowerbank were published in the ‘ Annals’ for May and June 1804.

13*

196 Prof. Sedgwick’s Reply to Prof. Milne-Edwards.

when it was made, I may surely be excused for a little lack of

memory.

All the statements of my former communication (of April

last) stand good and are unshakeny MM. Edwards and Haime

visited Cambridge (about the end’ of the year 1849) and made

arrangements with Professor M‘Coy for procuring figures of cer-

tain Oolitic corals, with a view to their publication in the essay

on “ British Oolitic Corals,” which appeared in 1851. These

arrangements were given up, without any further communi-

cation from them on the subject, either to Professor M‘Coy or

myself. Some time afterwards (early in 1850) an application was

made by Mr. Bowerbank (in behalf of the Paleeontographical

Society) for a loan of certain Oolitic corals in the Cambridge

Museum, in order that they might be figured at Paris. This

request could not be complied with, for reasons given in my

“Reply,” &c., which was published m the ‘ Annals’ of April

last. I can state most positively that Mr. Bowerbank’s appli-

cation (made by letter) did not include so much as one Palzeozoic

species: but along with it was a formal list (at this moment pre-

served among the papers of the Woodwardian Museum) of the

specimens wanted—all of which were Oolitic.

When, therefore, my friend Mr. Bowerbank laughs at my lack .

of memory while I was in the pains of a parturient speech ; I can,

with like good humour, retort upon him with interest, and con-

vict him also of an occasional fit of obliviousness. For in a letter

I have before me, he asserts that, on behalf of the Palzeonto-

graphical Society, “he never wrote to me but once, and that

once was regarding the Palzeozoic fossils.” Now, if he ever wrote

about the Paleozoic fossils he must (at the least) have written

twice ; for he once assuredly wrote, very specifically and formally,

about the Oolitic fossils and about them only.

In his Reply he gives a list of those to whom he did write on

the subject of Paleozoic fossils, to be published by the Palzon-

tographical Society in 1852. And he appears to have no doubt

that he also wrote to me on the same subject. I affirm, on the

contrary, that I never received from him any letter on this sub-

ject. And (if I mistake not), I can, out of his own letters, give

him a convincing reason why he did not write to me. For he

tells me (in a letter I have before me), that my verbal reply at

Ipswich (in 1850) was considered by him “as equivalent to a

refusal ;” and that the subject could not be introduced to me

afterwards “ without the appearance of importunity.” Having

in 1850 been refused the loan of the Oolitic corals, he quite

naturally abstained, on the year following, from making any ap-

plication to me for the Cambridge Paleozoie corals.

I should be indeed foolish were I to boast of a memory which

Dr. R. K. Greville on a new species of Caulerpa. 197

has often failed me, or done me but a slippery service. But in

what I have stated above, I do not lean upon my memory. On

the contrary, I rest only upon documents which admit of no

contradiction.

Not to dwell any longer upon blunders and slips of memory,

T again affirm, as I did in my communication of April last, that

had MM. Edwards and Haime, in their great essay on British

Oolitic Corals (published im 1851), charged the University of

Cambridge with unwonted illiberality, because the Oolitic corals

of our Museum had not been sent to Paris, their charge would,

in letter, have been true ; although (after what took place during

their visit to Cambridge) it would, I think, zn spirit have been

both uncourteous and unjust. But they let that occasion slip ;

and when their charge at length appeared (in 1852), in their

essay on the British Paleozoic Corals, it came im such a form

as not merely to be wanting in courtesy, but to be incompatible

with common historical truth : for, most assuredly, no application

had been made to Cambridge for a loan of a single Paleozoic

coral.

XXII.—Notice of a new species of Caulerpa.

By R. K. Grevitie, LL.D. &c.*

[With a Plate. ]

Tue Alga which forms the subject of the present notice was

communicated to me for determination along with several others,

by my friend Professor Balfour; and was collected in Bass’s

Straits, Australia, by Mr. James E. Cox.

Singularly variable in external conformation as are the species

of this fine and most natural genus, presenting no fewer than

six or seven well-defined groups, it will be at once perceived that

the present one differs entirely from them all. In general habit

it stands alone; and upon a closer view may be said to unite

those which possess a dendroid character with others which have

a more simple, plane, and pinnate or pinnatifid frond.

The prostrate stem is robust, branched, 12 inches or more,

probably, im length, rough with lmear simple or forked pro-

cesses (abortive ramuli), and altogether strongly resembling the

creeping stem of a Lycopodium. The fronds are erect, arising

singly, or often two together, 4 to 7 inches high, of an ovate-

oblong outline, and bushy like some species of Bryopsis. The

numerous ramuli are given off on all sides, an inch or more

* Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, July 13, 1854.

198 Bibliographical Notices.

long, spreading, pectinato-pinnate, compressed ; the pinne very

narrow, linear and acute. When magnified, the apices of the

pinne are found to be frequently minutely forked m a divaricate

manner, like some Oladonie. The lower part of the stalk of each

frond is naked for about half an inch, and covered with linear

scales or processes, like those of the creeping stem.

I propose the following name and character for this very

beautiful Alga : —

Caulerpa superba, frondibus ovato-oblongis, ramulis numerosis

pectinato-pinnatis undique obsitis.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 1. A frond of Caulerpa superba, natural size.

Fig. 2. A portion of a pinna.

Fig. 3. Apices of ditto, magnified.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Geodephaga Britannica. By J. F. Dawson.

London: J. Van Voorst, 1854.

To investigate a new country, and to draw conclusions from facts

and objects, concerning the novelty of which (as contrasted with what

we ordinarily experience) there can be no question, however interest-

ing and important may be the results arrived at, is a comparatively

easy undertaking ; but, to search for information along the beaten

highways of science, to aspire to advance knowledge in paths which

have been explored by others, and to gain additional points of light

by destroying the error which has been permitted gradually to accu-

mulate, is a laborious task which no one can accept without becoming

a public benefactor in his particular line. And hence it is that we

hail the appearance, more especially, of those works the professed

aim of which is to simplify rather than to discover,—believing that

the greatest boon which can be conferred upon any given subject is

to separate the true from the false, and so to pave the way for the

advance of the former, and, as a necessary consequence, the annihi-

lation of the latter. Such has been the primary object of the author

of the publication now before us; and therefore, whatever may be its

intrinsic merits, we must plead guilty to a certain @ priort prejudice

in its favour.

But, if we turn to the pages of this Monograph, and compare the

results arrived at with those of the standard works which have gone

before it, we shall perceive that it has not been taken in hand wan-

tonly ; but that it is the fruit of much close observation and practical

research, and that it may in fact be looked upon as the most suc-

cessful attempt which has been hitherto made to clear wp the diffi-

culties of nomenclature, and the confusion which has arisen as regards

the species themselves, in so large a section of the British Coleoptera.

Bibliographical Notices. 199

Having applied himself for many years past, almost exclusively, to

the study of our native Geodephaga, it is not surprising that Mr.

Dawson should have found himself compelled, not only to create

many changes in the general classification (so as to embody, as far as

seemed desirable, the more recent views of the continental entomo-

logists), but also to sweep away a vast number of “ species” (so

called) which had been proposed at a time when differences were less

philosophically inquired into than now, and when almost every mo-

dification which savoured in any degree of permanency was at once

considered as specific.

Regarding the arrangement put forth, it appears to be that which

is now universally acknowledged throughout Europe, and which was

first adopted in this country by Mr. Westwood,—from whose inva-

luable ‘Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects’ the

characters have been mainly borrowed. Mr. Dawson has however

transposed the third and fourth subfamilies of Mr. Westwood (in

accordance with the system at present received), by which means the

Trechi (of the Harpalides) are brought into direct contact with the

Bembidiades,—a step which is certainly desirable, on account of the

gradual manner in which these groups merge into each other both in

structure and habits.

The genera also have been treated according to the law which the

implicit followers of Erichson invariably endorse ; by which means a

large array of names which have been long familiar to the ears of

British naturalists have been entirely cancelled. Thus, for instance,

the Anchoment are made to embrace Platynus, Anchomenus proper

and Agonum; Pterostichus includes Pecilus, Abax, Pterostichus

proper, Platysma, Adelosia, Steropus, Omaseus, Argutor and Platy-

derus; and the Bembidia are composed out of Cillenum, Tachys,

Ocys, Philocthus, Peryphus, Notaphus, Leja, Lopha, Bembidium

proper and Tachypus,—as formerly understuod.

There can be no doubt whatever that the major part of these

amaigamations have become, in the advanced state of the science,

absolutely necessary,—the numerous species which have been brought

to light since the days of Bonelli, Megerle, Ziegler, and Leach having

so far supplied connecting links between groups once apparently

isolated, as to render it impossible that the latter should be any

longer upheld. Yet we may question whether Mr. Dawson has not

carried this principle somewhat too far ; and, whilst endeavouring to

simplify, whether he has not rejected more than (especially ix a local

fauna) is altogether desirable. In the details of their oral organs the

whole of the Carabide display so great a similarity inter se, or rather

shade-off into each other by such imperceptible gradations between

their extremes, that the tendency which various clusters of them pos-

sess to assume modifications of form which attain their maximum

only in successive centres of radiation, must oftentimes be regarded

as generic, if we would not lose sight altogether of the natural col-

lective masses into which the numerous species (however gradually)

do unquestionably distribute themselves. It is possible indeed that,

as our knowledge advances and new discoveries take place, we shall

200 Bibliographical Notices.

so far unite many of the consecutive nuclei which are now considered

well defined, that we shall be driven at last etther to accept the Lin-

neean genera only, or else the whole host of subsidiary ones (albeit

perhaps in a secondary sense) which are, one by one, being expunged.

And, since under the former contingency the determination of spe-

cies would become practically well nigh impossible, it is far from

unlikely that we shall eventually hail the latter as after all (at any

rate to a certain extent) the more convenient of the two. The natu-

ralist who looks upon harsh lines of demarcation as alone generic

would perhaps be doomed to disappointment, were he able to glance

into the future some hundred years hence and survey the innumerable

links (unthought of now) which science will in all probability have

then revealed. Every year indeed is provmg more and more that in

nature such do not in reality exist ; and if this should be the case, it

is clear that our definition of genera must, sooner or later, be alto-

gether remodelled ; and that (if they are to be accepted at all,—and

it is difficult to conceive, under our present system of nomenclature,

how we are to do without them) we shall have to content ourselves

eventually in regarding them as the emanations (within given areas)

from centres of radiation, rather than as uniform and isolated types.

In his elimination of “ species,’ Mr. Dawson has certainly done a

public service ; for it has long been evident to the working coleopte-

rists of this country, that a very extensive weeding was indispensable

before even an approximate idea of our Geodephagous fauna could

be arrived at. As a proof of the wholesale destruction which he has

committed, it will be enough to mention that, whilst m Mr. Ste-

phens’s list the section which he has monographed numbered 449

species (supposed to be truly indigenous), he has catalogued but 290!

And yet, in spite of this extraordinary falling-off, many bond fide

novelties are introduced with which Mr. Stephens was not ac-

quainted,—and which are, in fact, for the first time recorded as Bri-

tish. Such, for instance, are Harpalus sulphuripes, Germ. (disco-

vered by Mr. Jacques near Bristol); H. melancholicus, De}. (cap-

tured by Mr. Wollaston on the sandy coasts of Swansea and Tenby,

in South Wales) ; Stenolophus elegans, Dej. (detected by the Rev.

Hamlet Clark in the Isle of Sheppey) ; Bembidium fluviatile, De}.

(taken by Mr. Hadfield on the banks of the Trent, near Newark) ;

B. Stomoides, De}. (found by Mr. Bold along the margins of a

stream between Lanercost Abbey and Naworth Castle, im Cumber-

land) ; and B. callosum, Kust. (discovered by Mr. Steuart on Woking

Common).

In addition to these well-known European insects (which he is the

first to admit into our fauna), Mr. Dawson has described five as alto-

gether new to science: namely, Dyschirius impunctipennis (a large

and distinct species discovered by himself on the Smallmouth sands,

near Weymouth) ; D. jejunus (due to the researches of Mr. Bold of

Neweastle, who detected it on the banks of the river Irthing in Cum-

berland) ; Harpalus Wollastoni (found by Mr. Wollaston at Slapton

Ley, in Devonshire,—but which appears to be very nearly akin to, if

not actually identical with, the LZ. litigiosus, Dej.) ; and Séenolophus

Bibliographical Notices. 201

derelictus (allied to the 8S. brunnipes of Sturm, and captured by Mr.

F. Smith in the vicinity of London).

Perhaps the main defect in Mr. Dawson’s volume may be said to

be the paucity of the haditats which he records,—a circumstance the

more to be regretted from the facility with which an extensive series

of localities might have been made known ; whilst it is a universally

admitted fact, that nothing tends so much to increase the general in-

terest in a subject like that which he has so skilfully handled, as a

copious and well-selected list of the various districts im which the

several insects have been ascertained to occur. It is by this means

mdeed alone that we can obtain a correct estimate of their topogra-

phical distribution, and so be enabled to compare the productiveness

of distant portions of the British Isles ; whilst the pleasure which it

naturally affords to labourers in the same field, to see the fruit of

their investigations brought together for the general good, would

amply repay the small additional trouble which such an arrange-

ment would have involved.

These however, desirable though they may be, are subsidiary

points. The general accuracy of Mr. Dawson’s monograph, and the

amount of judgment which he has shown in grasping his specific dif-

ferences, will sufficiently attest its merit ; and we can only add that,

if his example should induce others to clear up the intricacies of

equally difficult departments with as much success, our coleopterous

fauna will not be long in assuming a more definite shape than it has

hitherto done.

The Medals of Creation, Sc. By (the late) G. A. Manrett, F.R.S.

2 vols. small Svo. Second Edition. London: Bohn.

It is with somewhat melancholy pleasure that we notice these

volumes, as they remind us of one, now passed away, who both by

his writings and lectures certainly assisted in rendering the science of

geology popular among the many, and whose poetic temperament

enlivened the society of private friendship. Previous to the appear-

ance of this work, Parkinson’s ‘ Introduction to the Study of Organic

Remains’ was, we believe, the only one especially devoted to the

subject ; and that simply professed to give a mere outline of the

principal generic forms, then known, which were found in a fossil

state. With the advanced state of science a more compendious work

was required —avoiding at the same time mere technicalities and dry

details, and yet giving the facts connected with a general view of

fossil botany and zoology in such clear and readable manner, as to

render the work a popular introduction to the study of palzeontology.

To a considerable extent, this attempt has been successful; and we

should feel the more grateful for the suecess, when it is considered

that the work was the production of leisure hours extracted amidst

the onerous duties of a laborious profession.

Regardless of the censure too frequently attached to the medical

man who studies Nature, although best qualified to interrogate her, Dr.

Mantell fearlessly followed the pursuit, and not only derived thence a

202 Bibliographical Notices.

solace, but enlarged our knowledge of the evidence of Creative power

and design in the ancient physical revolutions of our globe, the

history of which is fraught with so much interest and replete with so

much instruction. Ten years have e/apsed since the publication of

the first edition of the ‘‘ Medals,’’ which, it is not too much to say,

materially assisted the inquirer and student ; and many a person who

enjoyed the living representative, little thought until reading this

work that there was a lesson to be learnt from the worn cockle and

oyster shell or broken lobster’s claw.

So great has been the advance and so numerous the cultivators of

paleeontological science of late years, that a new edition was requisite

for the student ; the present one has been entirely rewritten and ar-

ranged, and the first volume was nearly printed at the period of the

late author’s decease. Fortunately for the public, and certainly for the

publisher, the second volume has been issued from under the mantle

of the able Secretary of the Geological Society, Mr. T. Rupert Jones,

and which, containing as it does the higher branches of the animal

kingdom, required much care in the collating and correcting. More-

over, we are glad to find that the editor has avoided the insertion

of passages that might be attributed either to egotism or envy in

the late author; for it is lamentable that the jostlings of scientific

men, when sometimes engaged upon the same bone, should be con-

tinued in perpetual raspings.

The volumes contain more than 900 pages and are profusely illus-

trated ; and the subjects are arranged in consecutive order. The work

is divided into four parts: the first part contains the nature and ar-

rangement of the British strata, with remarks on the contained fos-

sils and their mode of occurrence as regards petrifaction, silicification,

&e., with hints for collecting and preserving different fossils, more

especially the vertebrate forms. The second part is devoted to fossil

botany, and is considerably enlarged and improved, giving a general

history of the structure and affinities of the mineralized remains of

the vegetable kingdom, as well as interesting deductions respecting

the successive floras. The third part comprises fossil zoology, and

occupies thirteen chapters, treating successively of the Zoophytes,

Echinodermata, Foraminifera, Testacea, Cephalopoda, Articulata,

Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia. The geological distribution

of each group is given, as well as the principal British localities from

whence their remains have been obtained.

At p. 217 of the first volume we find the Bryozoa arranged under

the Zoophytes, contrary to the present received opinion that the

ought to be classed near the Mollusca, although it is fairly stated at

p- 265 that they are of a much higher order of organization than the

Anthozoa. By some inadvertence at p. 430 the genus Spherulites

is arranged with the univalve Mollusca, mstead of among the Bivalves

and near the Chamidee, to which the recent researches of Mr. Wood-

ward have proved its affinity. In the second volume (from the

Cephalopoda to Mammalia) the editor has used every endeavour to

render this portion as complete as possible by citing the latest imfor-

mation, and has also freely inserted many useful and good references

Bibliographical Notices. 203

to the different sections treated of, especially among the reptiles and

mammals. The subject of foot-prints is copiously treated, and with

regard to the controversy respecting the origin of the so-called Orni-

thoidichnites, the editor has judiciously avoided referring them posi-

tively to birds. In the section treating of the Batrachia is the follow-

ing interesting paragraph (p.748) respecting the geological distribution

of certain genera allied to the Perennibranchiata :—‘‘ The Labyrin-

thodont reptiles have been regarded as characteristic of the Permian

and Triassic epochs, their remains being tound in Germany and En-

gland in rocks of that age. The commencement of the existence of

this family of sauroid-batrachians, however, is of great antiquity, since

their relics also occur in the formations of the Carboniferous epoch.

The Archegosaurus, a batrachian but slightly removed from the true

Labyrinthodont type, has left its well-characterized remains in the

coal of Germany; the Parabatrachus, in that of Scotland; and the

allied Dendrerpeton, in the Nova Scotian coal-field. This last-men-

tioned great carboniferous formation has, however, afforded fossil

evidence of the existence of the true Labyrinthodonts in the coal-

period ; for some cranial bones, imbedded in a mass of Pictou coal,

lately sent to England by Mr. J. W. Dawson, and the subject of a

paper by Prof. Owen, read before the Geological Society, were de-

monstrated by that distinguished palzeontologist to have close affinity

with the corresponding parts of the skull of the Triassic genera Capi-

tosauvrus and Metopias.”

The fourth part contains general instructions for the collection of

rocks and fossils, and notes of excursions, in illustration of the mode

of investigating geological phenomena.

In recommending these volumes to the general reader, we feel

assured that the-editor has efficiently laboured in rendering his por-

tion of the work as complete a compendium as possible of the palzeon-

tological history of the organic beings of which it treats, and in

adapting it to the requirements of the geological student of the pre-

sent time.

Genera Plantarum Flore Germanice iconibus et descriptionibus

illustrata. Fasc. 27. Auctore R. Caspary.

We are glad to announce the receipt of this part of the valuable

series of plates commenced many years since by the lamented T. F.

L. Nees von Esenbeck, and continued by several eminent botanists.

So long an interval had elapsed since the publication of Fasc. 25,

which contains the illustrations of twenty genera of Dipsacez, Stel-

latee, Gentianacez, &c., edited by Dr. Schnizlein; and Fasc. 26, con-

sisting of twenty genera of Umbelliferee published by Prof. Bischoff,

that we had begun to fear that there would be no continuation of the

work. Our gratification is therefore the greater to find that it is

really to be continued. The recently published part is from the pen

and pencil of our correspondent Dr. Robert Caspary, of whose quali-

' fications for such an undertaking we had the opportunity of forming

an opinion during his residence in England. We are glad to add,

204. Bibliographical Notices.

that this Fasciculus well deserves to form a portion of the valuable

work with which it is connected. It contains plates and descriptions

of fourteen genera of Cruciferee, two off Papaveraceze and the genus

Caltha. These are illustrated in a rather more complete manner

than was adopted in the earlier parts of the work.

Concerning the other two fasciculi mentioned above, it is hardly

necessary to say that they are creditable to the eminent men whose

names are associated with them.

We cannot conclude without specially directing the attention of our

botanical readers to this work, as having the unusual properties of

cheapness combined with excellence. It is quite essential to every

student of European plants, and by far the greater number of the

genera illustrated in it are natives of Britain.

The Microscope and its Application to Clinical Medicine. By

Lionet Beare, M.B. 8vo. pp. 282.

The Microscope ; its History, Construction, and Applications. By

JaBEZ Hoce, M.R.C.S8. 8vo. pp. 434.

The former of these works, as is implied in its title, scarcely comes

within our range of subjects. Inasmuch, however, as it treats of the

method of using the microscope, the means of examining and pre-

serving objects, &c., we can recommend it as containing a tolerably

satisfactory account of the present state of knowledge upon these

subjects. It contains upwards of 200 woodcuts, and will form a

useful handbook to those members of the medical profession who

have not sufficient time to procure the information from the original

sources ; for it contains nothing new. We must.observe, that in

regard to the history, &c. of one or two points, it is in error.

Mr. Hogg’s book is of a different kind. It is intended for a

popular work, and forms one of the series of the ‘‘ Illustrated London

Library.”

It may be said to consist of two parts: a series of quotations, in

brackets, from various authors, in regard to microscopy and natural

history, and a number of annotations, with poetical abstracts by the

author, and is illustrated with numerous woodcuts. The quotations

embody a considerable amount of information upon natural history

and microscopy, for there is about as much of one as of the other ;

whilst the remarks of the author exhibit complete ignorance of both

these subjects, as well as a total deficiency of classical lore. Moreover,

the whole is written in a remarkably loose and clumsy style, well

calculated to disgust an educated mind with the use of the microscope

and microscopic observers.

Thus, we are told, that “the Hunotia is of the Navicula species.”

That ‘the scientific name by which the yeast-plant is known is

Fermentum cervisie, or Torula cervisia.’ That ‘the leathery

boletus is merely an enormous aggregation of the vegetable mould-

plant or mucor.’ That “the disease known as ring-worm, in-

festing the heads of children, is one out of forty-eight different

Royal Society. 205

species of this fungi.’’ One figure shows “the zones of annual

growth, termed the medullary rays.’’ Again, we have an account

of the “‘ Bryozoa Bowerbankia ;’ with abstracts from Quekett’s His-

torical Catalogue. Also a host of misspelt words ; and these not

occurring accidentally, but frequently repeated : thus, Astatia, Pluro-

sigma, Volvox globata, Saccina ventriculi, &c. The author has

also an insuperable difficulty in the distinction of the singular from

the plural. Thus, we have “ Torule diabetica;’ ‘the Entozoa

Sfolliculorum is,’ &c.; “ Vibrio spirilla or trembling animalcule

appear,’ &c. The words @nimalcule and spicule are constantly

used. The author’s knowledge of chemistry is also extremely small,

for we are told that the “invaluable agent, Formie acid or Chloro-

form, was first discovered in, and produced from, the Formic ant ;”

and that the ‘contents of the cells of the yeast-plant resemble fat or

oil, a protenic substance.”’

In short, the work is evidently written by one who has amused

himself with the examination of mounted microscopic objects, but —

who can lay no claims to the character of a man of science, and who

is very ill-caleulated to write a popular work. The book is just that

which we should have expected from one of those uneducated men,

highly useful in their way, who obtain their livelihood by preparing and

mounting microscopic objects ; but it is a discreditable production

from the pen of a member of the learned profession to which the

author belongs. The part of the publishers has been well performed,

and many of the woodcuts are very beautifully executed.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

April 6, 1854.—Thomas Graham, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

**On a peculiar Arrangement of the Sanguiferous System in

Terebratula and certain other Brachiopoda.” By W. B. Carpenter,

M.D., F.R.S.

In a memoir “‘ On the Minute Structure of Shell,” read before the

Royal Society January 17, 18438, (and subsequently embodied in a

« Report’ on the same subject, prepared at the request of the

British Association for the Advancement of Science, and published

in its Transactions for 1844,) I first announced the fact, that the

‘punctations ” which had been previously noticed on the exterior

of many Brachiopodous shells, both recent and fossil, are really the

orifices of ¢ubular perforations, which pass directly through each

valve, from one of its surfaces to the other (fig. 1).

Having subsequently obtained specimens of Terebratule in which

the soft parts of the animals had been preserved, in connection with

their shells, I ascertained that these passages are occupied in the

living state by membranous ceca, closed externally, but opening on

the internal surface of the shell, and filled with minute cells of a

206 Royal Society.

brownish hue. Recollecting that Professor Owen, in his account of

dissections of some species of Terebratula and Orbicula (Transac-

tions of the Zoological Society, vol. i.), had spoken of an unusual

adhesion of the mantle to the shell in these Bivalves, it occurred to

me that this adhesion might be due to a continuity between the

mantle and these cecal tubuli; and I carefully sought for evidence

of such a structure. In this, however, I was entirely unsuccess-

ful; for the mantle, when stripped from the shell, presented no ap-

pearance whatever of having transmitted any such prolongations

into its substance; on the contrary, it was evidently continued over

the mouths of the czeca with which it was in apposition; and I fre-

quently found its external surface (that in contact with the shell)

covered in patches with cells exactly resembling in size and aspect

those contained within the ceca. I was equally unsuccessful in the

attempt to trace any other connection between these ceeca and the

soft parts of the animal; so that, although their importance in its

ceconomy scarcely admitted of doubt, the nature of their function re-

mained entirely unknown. ‘The idea that they had any connection

with the formation of the shed/ itself, seemed to be completely nega-

tived by the fact, that in a large proportion of the group of Bracuro-

pop, no such perforations exist ; notwithstanding that their shells,

in every other feature of minute structure, are exactly accordant

with that of Terebratula.—The foregoing results were communicated

to the British Scientific Association in 1847, and were embodied in

the Second Part of my ‘‘ Report’’ published in its Transactions for

that year.

The physiological importance of the characters of ‘ perforation '

or ‘non-perforation ’ has become continually more obvious, as the

principles on which the subdivision of the group of Brachiopoda

should be founded, have been gradually settled by those who have

concerned themselves with its systematic arrangement’ and in par-

ticular, the universal presence of the perforations in the shells of the

family Terebratulide, contrasted with their equally universal absence

in those of the family Rhynchonellide, unequivocally marked its rela-

tion to the general conformation of the animals of these subdivisions.

Having been requested by Mr. Davidson to undertake a more de-

tailed investigation than I had yet made, into the minute structure

of the shells of Brachiopoda, for the sake of throwing still further

light upon the classification of the group, I applied myself afresh

to the solution of the problem, and believing that I have succeeded

in ascertaining the import of this curious feature in the organization

of Terebratula and its allies, I beg to offer an account of my re-

sults to the Royal Society.

The membrane which is commonly spoken of as ‘ the mantle,’ and

which may be stripped from the shell by the use of sufficient force

to overcome its adhesions, must, I maintain, be considered as really

its inner layer only; for I find that an outer layer exists, so intimately

incorporated with the shell as not to be separable from it without the

removal of its calcareous component by maceration in dilute acid.

When thus detached, this outer layer is found to be continuous with

Royal Society. 207

the membrane lining the perforations in the shell (fig. 14); so that

their tubular ceca are, in fact, prolongations of the rea/ external

surface of the mantle. The adhesion of the inner to the outer

Diagram of the intra-palleal sinus-system of Terebratula, with its cecal prolonga-

_ tions into the shell;—A, B, section of valve; a, inner layer of mantle, 4, outer

layer in contact with the shell, and giving off ceca; c, continuity of the two

at margin of valve.

layer (which Professor Owen, not being aware of the existence of an

outer layer, interpreted as an adhesion of the mantle to the shell)

does not extend to the whole of the contiguous surfaces, but is

limited to certain bands or spots,—the two layers of membrane, in

the intervals between these, being separated by a set of irregular

spaces, freely communicating with one another, and with the cavities

of the czca, so as to form a rude network. ‘This arrangement is

peculiarly well marked in Terebratula caput-serpentis, as shown in the

figure (fig. 2); and to those who are familiar with the condition of the

circulating apparatus in the inferior Mollusca, it is scarcely possible

not to recognize in it a ‘ sinus-system,’ corresponding to that which

is formed in the Tunicata by the partial adhesion of the second and

third tunics to each other.

Considered under this point of view, the cecal structure (as was

first suggested to me by my friend Mr. T. H. Huxley) bears a close

resemblance to the vascular prolongations, which, in many Asci-

dians, pass from the sinus-system into the substance of the ‘test ;’

the chief difference lying in this,—that whilst each of the vascular

prolongations into the ‘ test’ of the Ascidians contains both an affe-

rent and an efferent canal,—no such distinction ordinarily manifests

itself in these prolongations of the intra-palleal sinus-system of Tere-

bratula, although I have met with indications of it in Crania. Their

cecal character, however, is by no means opposed to the views I

am now giving of their physivlogical nature; for it has been shown

by M. de Quatrefages, that the prolongations of the ‘ general cavity

of the body,’ which pass into the branchiz and other appendages of

Annelida, transmitting to them its nutritive fluid for aération, are

208 Royal Society.

always cecal, notwithstanding that they are sometimes distributed

as minutely as blood-vessels*

SU ipa

on Mes

iy ail Na

“uit Hi

Bee ug $

val By |

aN lh a

aul

Tn Mi)

aN te : ’

A ti i a igh) i

aaa til (lia

Sinus-system of Terebratula caput-serpentis (as shown by the grinding away of

the shell, without detaching the mantle), being a network of canals formed by

the adhesion of the two layers of the mantle at certain spots, leaving passages

around them.

On this interpretation, the cells which are found within the czca,

and in the spaces between the contiguous surfaces of the two layers

of the mantle, are to be regarded as blood-corpuscles, and they cor-

respond in size and appearance (so far as can be determined by spe-

cimens preserved in spirits) with the blood-corpuscles of Ascidian

and Lamellibranchiate Mollusks.

The sinus-system from which this collection of cea proceeds,

appears to be altogether distinct from the vascular apparatus of the

(so-called) ‘mantle,’ (that is, according to my interpretation, of the

inner layer of the mantle) which has been described by Professor

Owen; but it probably communicates with the ‘common sinus’ at

the back part of the visceral chamber, which is stated by Professor

Owen to receive the blood, not only from the palleal sinuses of the

dorsal and ventral valves, but also from “‘ other sinuses that there

fill, line, and seem to form, the visceral or peritoneal cavity +.”

It cannot be deemed improbable, then, that the apparatus in ques-

tion is branchial in its nature; and that it is designed to provide for

certain tribes a more special means of aérating the blood, than is

afforded by that distribution of blood to the general surface of the

mantle, which is common to the entire group. This view of its re-

spiratory office is confirmed by an observation communicated to me

by Professor Quekett; viz. that the discoidal opercula which cover

the external orifices of the czeca, and which, though adherent to the

periostracum, are not structurally continuous with it, present ap-

pearances in young shells, which seem indicative of the existence of

* Ann. des Sci. Nat., 3° sér., Zool., tom. xviii. p. 307.

+ See Mr. Davidson’s Monograph on the Mi British Fossil Brachiopoda,”’

published by the Paleontographical Society, vol. i. p. 15.

Royal Society. 209

a fringe of cilia round each, designed to produce currents of water

over the extremities of the ceca.

The resemblance which these cecal, prolongations of the sinus-

system into the shell of the Terebratula bear to the vascular pro-

longations of the sinus-system into the test of certain Ascidians, is

not without its parallel in another group, which (as pointed out by

Mr. Hancock, Ann. of Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 198) is intimately re-

lated to that of Brachiopoda,—namely, the Bryozoa. The stony

walls of the ‘cells’ which invest the soft bodies of many species of

Eschara, Lepralia, &c., are marked, like the shells of Terebratule,

with punctations, which are really the orifices of short passages ex-

tending into them from their internal cavity, as sections of these

structures demonstrate. These passages I have found to be occupied

by prolongations of the visceral sac, which is the only representative

of a circulating system among these animals; and they thus convey

the nutrient fluid which this contains, into the substance of the

framework formed by the calcified tunics of these animals.

I need not here enlarge upon the additional value which these

structural and physiological considerations afford, to the character of

‘‘ perforation ” or ‘‘ non-perforation”’ in the shells of Brachiopoda.

The importance of this character in systematic arrangement will

plainly appear, I think, from the details which I have published in

the Introduction to Mr. Dayidson’s Monograph already referred to.

March 30, 1854.—Thomas Bell, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

“On the Structure and Affinities of Trigonocarpon (a fossil fruit

of the Coal-measures).” By Joseph D. Hooker, M.D., F.R.S.

_ Having been for some time engaged in examining the structure

and affinities of some fossil fruits of the coal formation, included

under the name Trigonocarpon, and the progress which I am enabled

to make being extremely slow (owing to the difficulty of procuring

good specimens), I am induced to lay before the Royal Society such

results as I have arrived at, for publication in their Proceedings (if

thought worthy of that honour). The details and illustrations of

the subject will, when complete, be offered to the Geological Society

of London.

My attention has for many years been directed to the genus T7i-

gonocarpon; as, from the period of my earliest acquaintance with

the flora cf the carboniferous epoch, I have felt assured, that bota-

nically, this was the most interesting and important fossil which it

contained in any great abundance, and that until the affinities of this

were determined, the real nature of the flora in question could never

be regarded as even approximately ascertained.

In the first place, Trigonocarpon is so abundant throughout the

coal-measures, that in certain localities some species may be pro-

cured by the bushel; nor is there any part of the formation in which

they do not occur, except the underclays and limestone. The sand-

stone, ironstones, shales, and coal itself, all contain them.

Secondly. The symmetry in form and size which many of them

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 14

210 Royal Society.

display, the regularity of the soulffeinitig on their surfaces, and

various other points, suggested their belonging to a class of highly

organized vegetables.

Thirdly. The fact of our being wholly unacquainted with the

organs of fructification belonging to the exogenous vegetation, which

also abounds in the coal formation, coupled with the assumed highly

organized nature of Trigonocarpon, favoured the assumption that

these might throw light upon one another, and seemed to afford a

legitimate basis upon which to proceed, should I ever procure speci-

mens of 7rigonocarpon displaying structure, which I had long hoped

to do.

It is, however, only since my return from India that I have been so

fortunate as to obtain good specimens, and for these I am indebted

to my friend Mr. Binney of Manchester, who has himself thrown

much light upon the vegetation of the coal epoch, and whose exer-

tions indeed have alone enabled me to prosecute the subject; since

he has not only placed his whole collection of Trigonocarpons at my

disposal, but has shared with me the trouble and expense of their

preparation for study. All the specimens were found imbedded in

a very tough and Lard black-band or clay ironstone, full of frag-

ments of vegetable matter, and which appears originally to have

been a fine tenacious clay.

The individual Trigonocarpons are exposed by breaking this rock,

and are invariably so intimately adherent to the matrix as to be

fractured with it. A great many of these lumps of ironstone, con-

taining partially exposed Trigonocarpons, have been sliced by a lapi-

dary in the usual manner, and excessively thin sections taken on

slips of glass. The sections were made necessarily very much at

random, but as nearly as possible parallel, or at right angles to the

long diameter of the fruit. Five of the specimens thus operated

upon have proved instructive, presenting the same appearances, and

all being intelligible, and referable to one highly developed type of

plants. As, however, the term ‘ highly developed’ may appear ambi-

guous, especially with reference to a higher or lower degree in the

scale of vegetable life, I may mention that by this term I mean to

imply that there are in the fruit of Trigonocarpon extensive modifi-

cations of elementary organs, for the purpose of their adaptation to

special functions, and that these modifications are as great, and the

adaptation as special, as any to be found amongst analogous fruits

in the existing vegetable world.

Thus, I find that the integuments of the fruit of Trigonocarpon are

each of them a special highly organized structure ; they are modifica-

tions of the several coats of one ovule, and indeed of the same num-

ber of integuments as now prevail in the ovules of living plants.

The number, structure and superposition of these, are strongly

indicative of the Trigonocarpons having belonged to that large sec-

tion of existing coniferous plants, which bear fleshy, solitary fruits,

and not cones ; and they so strongly resemble the various parts of the

fruit of the Chinese genus Salisburia, that, in the present state of our

knowledge, it appears legitimate to assume their relationship to ‘it.

Royal Society. 211

In all the five specimens alluded to, there are more or less perfect evi-

dences of four distinct integuments, and of a large cavity, which is

in all filled with carbonate of lime and magnesia; these minerals, I

presume, having replaced the albumen and embryo of the seed.

The general form of the perfect fruit is an elongated ovoid (rather

larger thana hazel nut), of which the broader or lower end presents

the point of attachment, while the upper or smaller end is produced

into a straight, conical, truncated rostrum or beak, which is per-

forated by a straight longitudinal canal. The exterior integument

is very thick and cellular, and was no doubt once fleshy ; it alone is

produced beyond the seed and forms the beak; its apex I assume to

have been that of the primine of the ovule, and its cavity the exo-

stome. The second coat appears to have been much thinner, but

hard and woody or bony; it is impervious at the apex; is also ovoid,

and sessile by its broad base within the outer integument, with

which it is perhaps adherent everywhere except at the apex. ‘This

is marked by three angies or ridges, and being that alone which

(owing to its hard nature) commonly remains in the fossil state, has

suggested the name of Trigonocarpon. Within this are the third

and fourth coats, both of which are very delicate membranes; one

appears to have been in close apposition with the inner wall of the

second integument, and the other to have surrounded the albumen.

These are now separated both from one another, and from the inner

wall of the cavity, by the shrinking of the contents of the latter, and

the subsequent infiltration of water charged with mineral matter, I

may remark, however, that these two membranes may be due to the

separation of one into two plates, in which case the original one was

formed of several layers of cells. Hitherto I have not been able to

trace any crganized structure within the cavity of the fruit, and its

real nature therefore remains doubtful. It is only from the strong

resemblance, in structure, appearance and superposition, which these

integuments present to those of Taxoid Conifere, that I assume their

probable relationship. Salisburia, especially, has the same ovoid

fruit, sessile by its broader end, and its outer coat is perfectly ana-

logous, being thick, fleshy, and perforated at its apex by a longitu-

dinal canal (the exostome of the ovule); within this is a perfectly

similar, woody, two- or three-angled, impervious integument, form-

ing the nut. This again is lined with one very delicate membrane,

and contains a mass of albumen covered with a second similar mem-

brane. A marked analogy is presented to the European botanist by

the fruit of the Yew, which has the same integuments though some-

what modified; the outer, fleshy coat in the Yew is however a cup-

shaped receptacle, and not drawn up over the nut so as to leave

only a small canal at the top, as in Salisburia and Trigonocarpon.

The nut also does not adhere to the fleshy cup except below its

middle. ‘The internal structure is the same in all three.

Such are the main facts which I have been able satisfactorily to

establish. There are many others yet to be worked out, especially

those connected with the individual tissues of which those bodies are

composed ; and it is particularly to be borne in mind that the disco-

14*

212 Royal Society.

very of some structure indicative of albumen or embryo, is abso-

lutely essential to the complete establishment of the affinity I have

suggested.

It must not be overlooked, that the characters through which I have

attempted to establish an affinity between Trigonocarpon and Coniferz

are equally common to the fruits of Cycadee; and in connexion with

this subject I may remark, that M. Brongniart* has referred the

genus Noggerathia, which is also found in the coal-measures, to

that natural order, together with some associated organs which are

probably ‘Trigonocarpons in a mutilated state. The leaves of Nog-

gerathia are, however, alone known, and Dr. Lindley, when figuring

those of one species (Lindley and Hutton, Fossil Flora, 28, 29),

pointed out their great resemblance to those of Salisburia, thus

affording collateral evidence of the view I have been led to adopt

from an examination of the fruit alone.

May 11, 1854.—The Earl of Rosse, President, in the Chair.

‘‘On the relation of the Angular Aperture of the Object-Glasses

of Compound Microscopes to their penetrating power and to Oblique

Light.” By J. W. Griffith, M.D., F.L.S.

he explanation given by Dr. Goring and others of the advantage

of increased angular aperture in microscopic objective-glasses ap-

pears to the author to be correct, as applied to the case of opake ob-

jects, and accordingly his remarks in the present communication

have reference to transparent objects only.

It is known that delicate markings on a transparent object, such

as the valve of a Gyrosigma, may be rendered more distinctly visible

by using an object-glass of large aperture, by bringing the mirror to

one side, and by placing a central stop in the object-glass or the con-

denser or in both; the increased distinctness produced in these seve-

ral ways being due to the illumination of the object by oblique light.

Experiment also shows that the degree of obliquity of the light re-

quisite varies with the delicacy or fineness of the markings, being

greater as these are more delicate; so that the finest markings re-

quire the most oblique light which can possibly be obtained to ren-

der them evident, and the angular aperture of the object-glass must

necessarily be proportionately large, otherwise none of these oblique

rays could enter it.

lf the parts of an object which refract the light are large in pro-

portion to the power of the object-glass and of irregular form, they

will refract a certain number of rays, so that these cannot enter the

object-glass; hence certain parts will become dark, and will map out, as

it were, in the image formed of the object, the structural peculiarities

of the same. But if the parts are minute, of a curved form and ap-

proximatively symmetrical, they will act upon the light transmitted

through them in the manner of lenses, and their luminous or dark

appearance will vary according to the relation of the foci of these to

that of the object-glass. Thus the parts of an object may appear

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 2nd Series, vol. v. p. 52.

Royal Society. 213

dark and defined, from the refraction of the light out of the field of

the microscope; also, from the concentration or dispersion of por-

tions of the light by these parts, all the rays being admitted by the

object-glass, or entering the field.

Another condition affecting distinctness consists in the relation

which the luminousness or darkness of an object bears to that of the

field or back ground upon which it is apparently situated.

The refraction of the light out of the field of the microscope or

beyond the angle of aperture of the obdject-glass is the ordinary

cause of the outlines of objects becoming visible; and in these cases,

an increase of the angular aperture of the object-glass will impair

their distinctness, because it will allow of the admission of those

rays which would otherwise have been refracted from the field, and

the margins will become more luminous and less contrasted with

the luminous field.

The cause of the distinctness of an object by refraction when

all or nearly all the rays enter the field of the microscope, may

be investigated in a drop of oil immersed in water, or in a drop

of milk, as illuminated by light reflected from an ordinary mirror.

The refractive power of the globules is so great and their form

such, that each acts as a minute spherical lens; and the parts

within the margin will appear light or dark according to the relation

of the focus of the little lens to that of the object-glass. Under an

object-glass of small aperture and moderate power the outline will

appear black, because the marginal rays do not enter the object-glass.

if the object-glass be of sufficient aperture to admit these marginal

rays, the black margin will disappear, and the little lens will only be

distinguishable by the above focal relation. Its appearance under

oblique light (thrown from all sides, as when the condenser and a

central stop are used) will vary; but taking the case of extreme

obliquity of the rays, the lens will only be visible by a luminous mar-

gin from reflexion, giving it a very beautiful annular appearance.

Hence it is more distinct by direct, or slightly oblique, than by very

oblique light.

But in certain objects, the irregularities of structure are of such

extreme minuteness, or the ditference of the refractive power of the

various portions of the structure is so slight, that the course of the

rays is but little altered by refraction on passing through them, and,

under ordinary illumination, all the rays will enter the object-glass ;

neither are the rays accumulated into little cones or parcels, of sufh-

cient intensity to map out the little light or dark spots in the field

of the microscope, according to the relation. of their foci with that

of the object-glass.

Let us take the instance of an object with minute depressions on

the surface, as the valve of a Gyrosigma. These are so minute, that

when the light reflected from the ordinary mirror is used, the rays

passing through the depressed and the undepressed portions, are not

sufficiently refracted to cause either set to be excluded from the

object-glass, consequently both sets will enter it. ‘The slightly

oblique and converging rays passing through a portion of the

214 Royal Hoctety.

valve become separated into two sets, one passing through the

thinner depressed portions, the other through the thicker and unde-

pressed portions: still both sets enter the object-glass. But on trans-

mitting oblique light through the object, one set of the rays will be

refracted so as not to enter the object-glass, whilst the other set will

gain admission; thus the two parts, which have differently refracted

the rays, will become distinct. If the markings were more delicate,

or if the difference between the refractive power of the two portions

of the valve were less, both sets would enter the object-glass. But

on rendering the light still more oblique, one set would be again

excluded by being refracted out of the field. Hence it is evident

why the angular aperture of the object-glass must be larger as

the markings are finer, or the difference between the refractive

power of the two portions of tissue is less; because the obliquity

of the light requisite will be very great to cause the exclusion

of one set of the rays, and the other set will be too oblique to

enter the object-glass unless it be of correspondingly large aperture.

This is the explanation of the advantage of oblique light. It has

no peculiar power of rendering objects distinct, as has sometimes

been believed, and the following experiment, supposed to show such

peculiar power, is really to be explained on different grounds. A

piece of net, or some similar texture, is placed behind a hole made in

a window-shutter, and when thus viewed, the fibres are not well

seen; but when the texture is moved on one side, they become very

distinctly visible, and this has been erroneously attributed to the

illumination by oblique light; whereas the increased distinctness in

the lateral position is owing principally to the circumstance that

the object is then viewed on a dark instead of a white ground as in

the first instance; although it is also true that in this position the

oblique rays, being reflected in large numbers from the fibres into

the eye, contribute to the distinct vision of the object when viewed

as it then is upon a dark ground.

The most difficult point has been to explain, how an object-

glass of large angular aperture will render markings evident,

which were not visible under an object-glass of smaller aperture ; be-

cause it would naturally be imagined that the larger aperture would

admit both sets of rays, one of which was excluded by the ob-

ject-glass of smaller aperture, The difficulty vanishes when it is re-

collected that the additional rays admitted by the object-glass of larger

aperture are more oblique; hence one set of these rays will be re-

fracted from the field of the microscope, whilst the other set will

enter the object-glass and will illuminate the more highly refractive

parts of the object ; thus the two kinds of differently refractive struc-

ture become distinctly separated, one appearing dark, the other lumi-

nous; in fact, by means of the additional rays admitted by the larger

aperture we illuminate more highly one part of the object whilst the

illumination of the other is not increased. In short, the object is

illuminated, first, by rays corresponding to those admitted by an

object-glass of small aperture ; and, secondly, by the additional rays

admitted by the object-glass of larger aperture. ‘he first set not

Royal Society. 215

being sufficiently oblique, no part of them is refracted beyond the

angular aperture of the object-glass ; the second, being more oblique,

are refracted out of the field by certain parts of the object and not

by others, and thus contribute to render its different parts distin-

guishable by contrast of darkness and illumination. The first set of

rays, by illuminating all parts of the object, tend to diminish this

contrast, and consequently do not add to but impair the discrimina-

tive power of the object-glass for the fine markings of transparent

objects, and accordingly these are rendered more distinctly visible

by intercepting the less oblique rays by means of a central stop.

It has been here assumed that the oblique light requisite for the

display of the markings upon objects is separated into two sets of

rays by refraction; but the author observes that it might be ques-

tioned whether they are not separated by reflexion. ‘I'here can be

no doubt that the latter is not generally the case; perhaps the most

important reason which may be assigned for this is, the considerable

comparative breadth of the luminous portions of the valve of the

Gyrosigma for instance. On transmitting unilateral light obliquely

through the valve of an Jsthmia, in which the depressions are so

large, in such manner that part of it is reflected by portions of them,

it is easily seen how small the amount of reflected light is; and this

because the surface of the depressions is curved, and thus the por-

tions inclined at the requisite angle for reflexion are also very small.

As the amount of light reflected is so small in this case, it would

be inappreciable in that of the Gyrosigma, in which the depressions

are so exceedingly minute. In fact, attention to this point affords

a ready means of distinguishing whether an object is illuminated by

reflexion or refraction.

The author next considers the relation of the penetrating power of

an object-glass to its defining power. Penetrating power depends

upon angular aperture, and consequently on oblique light. The

question whether there be any essential difference between pene-

trating and defining power is best answered by experiment. If we

take a fragment of the valve of an Zsthmia and examine it under a

high power of small aperture, all the parts are very distinctly seen

by the ordinary light of the mirror; and the various depths of shadow

of the different parts of the depressions and the undepressed por-

tions render these also clearly distinguishable ; and when an object-

glass of very large aperture is used, the distinctness is rather im-

paired than improved. But if we examine a fragment of the valve

of a Gyrosigma, and this requires an object-glass of large aperture

to render the markings visible, no distinction of the various parts of

the depressions and the undepressed portions is visible ; all we see is,

that the depressions as a whole are dark and the undepressed por-

tions are luminous. Hence the /sthmia requires defining power,

whilst the Gyrosigma requires penetrating power or large angle of

aperture to exhibit the markings; yet the structures differ only in

size. And there can be no doubt that if we could examine the valve

ot the Gyrosigma under a power as high relatively to the size of the

depressions, as that under which we can examine the Jsthmia, the

216 Zoological, Society.

same relations being preserved between the angle of aperture of the

object-glass and the angular inclination of the refracted rays, the

various parts of the depressed and undepressed portions would be

equally recognizable in both cases.

This is also true of fine lines scratched or etched on glass; for

although the coarser lines upon glass micrometers are well seen with

an object-glass of small aperture with good defining power and

direct light, yet the finest lines upon Nobert’s test-slide require

penetrating power in the object-glass, and oblique light. Large an-

gular aperture or penetrating power is but a very imperfect substitute

for defining power—an important point which the author believes has

not hitherto been noticed, and to which he would invite the earnest

attention of object-glass makers.

The author concludes by observing that his remarks have been

principally confined to one class of objects requiring penetrating

power, viz. the valves of the Diatomacee. This has been done ad-

visedly, because the scales of insects, which may be regarded as form-

ing the type of the other class, involve considerations of a mixed

kind, which would have tended to confuse the subject. The longi-

tudinal ridges upon the scales of insects, in their relation to pene-

tration, may be viewed as representing the undepressed portions of

the valves of the Diatomacez ; and the same explanation will apply

to the visibility of both under various conditions. The transverse

lines seen upon the scales are not indications of true structure; but

their origin, as also that of the lines seen upon the valves of the

Diatomacee, from circular or angular depressions, does not come

within the conditions involved in the principle which it has been the

object here to elucidate. It will suffice to say that the true struc-

tures producing the appearance of transverse markings upon the

scales of insects are best resolved by small angular aperture and‘good

definition.

It has been assumed also, that the markings upon the valves of

the Diatomacee arise from depressions. ‘This can be proved to be

the case in the larger ones (Isthmia, &c.); and there is sufficient

evidence to render it at least highly probable in the remainder. But

this is an unessential point as regards the principle, and therefore it

has not been dwelt upon.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

February 10, 1852.—W. Yarrell, Esq., in the Chair,

MonoGrarH oF THE FAMILY BRANCHIPODID&, A FAMILY

oF CRUSTACEANS BELONGING TO THE Diviston ENTOMOsS-

TRACA, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES

OF THE FAMILY, AND TWO NEW SPECIES BELONGING TO THE

Famity LimnapiAp&. By W. Bairp, M.D., F.L.S. &e.

Next to the Apudide, the largest species of Hntomostraca belong

to the family Branchipodide. This family contains perhaps the most

Zoological Society. 217

beautiful animals of the division, elegant in form and graceful in

movement. The species are, geographically, widely extended, but

those as yet described are few in number.

The Family may be thus characterized.

Order PHyLuLoropa.

Family BraNncuivopip&.

Pedes branchiales, paribus undecim ad novemdecim. Antenne dis-

similes, paribus duobus; par inferior in mare prehensilis. Oculi

duo, pedunculati. Corpus cylindricum, nudum, clypeo nullo

obtectum. -

The feet are all branchial, being formed entirely for breathing

with, and consist of 11 pairs, each pair gradually enlarging i in size as

they descend. They are in constant motion, and ae so, present a

very beautiful wavy appearance. Like the Apodide the animals of

this family swim upon their backs. The body consists of a considerable

number of segments, and is quite naked, having neither a shield-

shaped carapace like the 4podide, nor a bivalve-shell-shaped cara-

pace like the other families of the Order Phyllopoda. The antennz

are dissimilar in appearance in the male and female. The superior

pair in both sexes are slender and filiform, but the inferior pair are

much larger in the male than in the female, and serve the purpose

of prehensile organs. The eyes are two in number, compound, oval-

shaped, and are placed upon considerable-sized peduncles. Like the

Apodide, the young Branchipodide have only one eye, which dis-

appears in the process of moulting, but leaves a mark behind which

remains visible in the adult.

The species included in this family are referable to five genera.

Genus Brancuipus, Scheffer.

Corpus molle, cylindricum, segmentum caudale pinnis duabus ct-

liatis instructum. Pedes undecim. Antenne inferiores maris

magne, bi-articulate, cornibus similes, appendicibus duabus

filiformibus, antenniformibus, armate.

The body is soft, cylindrical in shape, and is composed of twenty-

two segments. The head consists of two and the thorax of eleven,

each of which gives attachment to a pair of branchial feet. The ab-

domen consists of uine, the caudal segment dividing into two broad

flat appendages of some length, and plumose on their edges. The

inferior antennee, or “ cephalic horns,” in the male are large organs ;

they are composed of two articulations, which being cylindrical and

curved at the apex give an appearance of a pair of horus, and they

have springing from near their base a filiform appendage closely re-

sembling in appearance the superior antennze. The structure of these

inferior antennz, or cephalic horns as they are generally termed, and

the filiform appendage at their base, which are frequently described

as an additional pair of antenne, sufficiently distinguish the genus.

* . 5 .

Only two species of Branchipus have as yet been described.

218 Zoological Society.

}

1. Brancuipus piscirorMIs, Scheffer. Antennis inferioribus

maris magnis, compressis, apice bifurcatis ; appendicibus anten-

niformibus filiformibus prelongis ; fronte prolongato, bisulco.

Long. } poll.

Syn. Apus pisciformis, Scheffer, Der Fisch-form. Kiefenfuss, ete.

t. 5. f. 1-11 (1752).

Cancer stagnalis, Linnzeus, Syst. Nat. edit. 10. 634 (1 798) ; Faun.

Suec. ed. 2. 497. No. 2043 (1761); Fabricius, Ent. Syst. ii. 918.

No. 11; Mantiss. i. 335. No. 10; Miler, Zool. Dan. Prodrom.

2351; O. Fabricius, Faun, Greenland. 247. No. 224.

Branchipus pisciformis, Scheeffer, Element. Entomol. t. 29. f. 6, 7

(1766).

alee stagnalis, Fabricius, Syst. Entom. 419. No. 5.

Cancer (Gammarellus) stagnalis, Herbst, Krabben und Krebse,

ii. 121. No. 66. t. 35. f. 8-10 (1796).

Branchiopoda stagnalis, Lamarck, Syst. An. s. Vert. 161, Latreille,

Hist. Nat. Crust. iv. 319. t. 36, 37; Gen. Crust. i. 22; Bosc, Man.

d’Hist. Nat. Crust. 1. 234.

Branchipus stagnalis, Latreille, Enc. Méth. t. 336. f. 14-16 ;

Régne Anim. iv. 174; Leach, Dict. Se. Nat. xiv. 542 ; Edin. Encye.

vii. 384 ; Desmarest, Cons. gen. Crust. 389; Lamarck, Hist. An. s.

Vert. v. 133; M. Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust. iii. 367; Régn. An.

ed. Crochart, t. 74. f. 2.

Branchipus Schefferi, Fischer de Waldheim, Bull. Soc. Imp.

Moscou, vil. (1834) ; Thompson, Zool. Research. fase. v. t. 3. f. 1-3

1834).

Branchipus melanurus? Koch, Deutsch. Crust. H. 35. t. 2.

Ino stagnalis? Oken, Lehrb. der Naturg. iii. 399.

Larva aquatica, Linn. Faun. Suec. ed. 1. 358. No. 1357.

Hab. In vicinitate urbis Ratisbone ; Scheffer. In vicinitate urbis

Paris; M. Edwards.

This species according to Scheeffer’s description is half an inch

long, about the thickness of a straw, and semipellucid. The male is

generally of a pale red or flesh colour, though sometimes varying be-

tween vermilion and orange. The female is of a dull green, with the

ovaries generally of a bright blue. The inferior antennz of the male

are large organs, somewhat flattened in shape, broad at the base,

toothed at about two-thirds of their length on the external edge, and

becoming narrower near the extremity, which presents an appearance

as if somewhat bifurcated. Those of the female are much shorter,

cylindrical, and pointed at the extremity. The two antenniform

appendages arising from near the base of these organs in the male

are of considerable length, longer than the antennz themselves, and

filiform. The front of the head is prolonged into a prominence

which is cleft down the centre and forked. The feet are long, com-

posed of three joints, all of which are nearly of equal size, and have

their edges beset with numerous short hairs or setae, which when

magnified «re finely plumose. The caudal fins are of considerable

size, flat and plumose. The male organs are slender and rather long.

Zoological Society. 219

2. Brancuipus spinosus, M. Edwards. <Antennis inferioribus

maris magnis, cylindricis, apice acuminatis ; appendicibus an-

tenniformibus curtis, crassis ; abdominis segmentis infra spini-

feris.

Long. | poll. 2 lin.

Branchipus spinosus, M. Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust. iti. 367.

Hab. In lacu salino “ Hadjibé,” in vicinitate urbis Odesse ; M.

Nordmann.

This species, which was discovered by Professor Nordmann in a

salt lake near Odessa, is upwards of an inch in length. The inferior

antenne of the male are large, cylindrical, the terminal articulation

being sharp at the point. They possess no tooth or process, and the

antenniform appendages are very short compared with those of the

preceding species, and of a considerable degree of thickness. The

front of the head has no prolongation. The feet are short. The seg-

ments of the abdomen are armed underneath with sharp spines, and

the caudal fins are short and plumose. The male organs are short

and obtuse.

Genus STREPTOCEPHALUS.

Corpus cylindricum, segmentum caudale pinnis duabus ciliatis in-

structum ; pedes undecim ; antenne inferiores maris triarticu-

late, valde tortuose, ad apicem in ramos graciles divise, ap-

pendicibus antenniformibus armate.

In the structure of the body, abdomen, and feet, this genus re-

sembles entirely the preceding. The inferior antenne, or cephalic

horns, in the male, however, are very different in structure ; they

are longer in proportion than the corresponding organs in the Bran-

chipus, consist of three articulations, and are singularly twisted, and

bent as it were into elbows. ‘The terminal joint divides at the apex

into two branches. They are inhabitants of fresh water. Only two

species have as yet been described, and I now add a third to the

number.

1. STREPTOCEPHALUS TORVICORNIS, Waga. Antennis inferiort-

bus maris validis, ramis terminalibus elongatis, serratis, interno

longiore, processu triangulari brevi armato, appendicibus an-

tenniformibus elongatis filiformibus ; fronte prolongato, acumi-

nato ; ovario externo conico.

Long. maris 1 poll., foemine cirea 14 lin.

Branchipus torvicornis, Waga, Ann. Soc. Ent. de France, xi. 261.

t. Ll. f. 1-4.

Hab. In vicinitate urbis “ Warsaw ;”’ Krynicki.

This species, which was discovered by M. Krynicki in a muddy

stagnant piece of water near the town of Warsaw, is upwards of an

inch in length, the female being longer than the male. The inferior

antenne: or cephalic horns of the male are very large, when extended

equalling in length the whole body. The basal joint is strong, and

broad at its junction with the head ; the second is short, and the third

is divided at the apex into two branches, which are long, slender and

serrated on their inner edges, the internal one being the longer, bent

220 Zoological! Society.

into the form of a hook, and having ou its external edge a process of

a triangular form and acuminated at the point. The first and second

joints are armed with several minute teeth, and the antenniform ap-

pendages are straight, slender, but somewhat stouter than the supe-

rior antenne. The frout of the head is prolonged into a prominence

which is pointed. The inferior antennz in the female are flat, and

obtusely rounded at the extremity. The ovarian bag is conical in

shape and of a blue colour. The caudal fins are of considerable size

and plumose on their edges.

2. SrREPTOCEPHALUS CAFER, Lovén. Antennis inferioribus

maris longis, articulo basali intus appendice lacinulata brevt

predito, ramo terminali interno longo, flexuoso, inermi ; fronte

prolongato, in rostrum lunatum producto ; ovario externo calt-

geform.

Long. 15 millim,

Branchipus cafer, Lovén, Kongl. Wet. Akad. Handl. 1845, 433.

tip, 1. 1-20.

Hab. In paludibus terree Cafrorum Natalensium ; Wahlberg.

This species was discovered by M. Wahlberg in some pools of

fresh water in Port Natal, and is about 15 millimetres in length. The

inferior antennz or cephalic horns in the male are long stout organs

and flexuose in shape. The basal joint is rather short, rounded, and

is furnished at its base on the internal edge with a short appendage

of a lanceolate form and toothed on its edge externally. The third

joint divides at the apex into two branches, the internal one. bemg

long, slender and flexuose, the external being club-shaped and forked

at the extremity, dividing into two other slender branches of unequal

length. The antenniform appendages are filiform and flexuose. The

front of the head is prolonged into a narrow deflected beak, which is

forked at its extremity. The male organs are long and slender ;_ they

are composed of four articulations, the last of which is much the

longest, is curved, and armed on each side with a numerous row of

teeth and spines.

In the female the cephalic horns are broad, thick, and furnished

with a sharp hooked point at the extremities. The caudal fins are

of considerable size and finely plumose. The oviferous sac is long

and narrow, and resembles very much in shape a long stocking or

boot. The ova are of a rosy colour.

3. SrREPTOCEPHALUS sIMILis, Baird. Antennis imferioribus

maris longis, cylindricis, appendice lunulata destitutis, ramis

terminalibus precedenti similibus, appendicibus antenniformibus

filiformibus elongatis ; fronte prolongato, in rostrum bilobatum

producto ; ovario externo conico.

Long. maris 8 lin., foem. 6 ln.

Hab. In insula “St. Domingo,” in India Occidentali. Collegit

M. Sallé. Mus. Brit.

This species, which was found by M. Sallé in the island of St.

Domingo in the West Indies, is of a slender and cylindrical form.

The male is about 3ths of an inch in length, and the female half an

Zoological Society. 221

inch. The inferior antennze or cephalic horns in the male are large

and tortuous ; they are composed of three joints; the first or

basal joint is the largest, is cylindrical, and extends for some distance

straight forwards ; the second, smaller than the basal, is also eylin-

drieal, curves slightly at first, then bends suddenly backwards upon

itself ; the third or terminal joint bends as suddenly forwards and

terminates in a club-shaped extremity, which divides into two

branches, one longer than the other, termimating in a long filiform

process ; the other flatter, shorter, and dividing into two shorter fili-

form processes of unequal length. The antenniform appendage is

long and cylindrical, rather stout, and springs from close to the ex-

tremity of basal joint. The basal joint is destitute of the lanceolate,

toothed appendage on internal edge, which we see in the preceding

species. The superior antenne are long and slender, and consist

of two joints, the basal one much shorter than the second. The

male organs are rather long, cylindrical, and of a horny texture.

The front of the head is prolonged into a beak, which is flat, rather

broad and slightly lobed at the extremity. Feet short. Abdomen

slender. Caudal appendages of moderate length, and beset on each

side with numerous short and plumose sete.

The cephalic horns in the female are short, thick, and terminate in

a short spine at the extremity. The ovarian bag is conical, acute,

and the ova are of an ochreous colour.

The chief differences between this species and S. cafer consist, in

the male, in the shape of the front of the head, the organs of gene-

ration, and in the inferior antennee having no lamina with teeth on

the basal joint ; in the female, in the shape of the external ovary.

Genus CHirocEePHALuS, Prevost.

Corpus molle, cylindricum ; segmentum caudale pinnis duabus

ciliatis instructum ; pedes undecim ; antenne inferiores maris

valide, biarticulate, appendicibus digitiformibus fiabelliformi-

husque armate.

This genus closely resembles the two preceding in the shape and

form of the body, having the same number of articulations, possess-

ing the same number of. feet, and having similar caudal fins. It is

in the structure of the inferior antennz or cephalic horns in the

male, that the important difference between the two genera exists.

These antennze are very large, and are composed of two joints. At

the base of the first joint a complicated apparatus arises, which when

unfolded presents a very curious appearance. This consists of a long,

flat, curved, very flexible body, somewhat tapering and toothed on

its edges, and composed of numerous short articulations, which the

animal can fold up upon itself like a ribbon. Springing from its ex-

ternal edge near the base are four rather long and flexible appendages

strongly toothed on their internal edge, somewhat resembling long

fingers, and in addition to these a large membranous triangular-

shaped body, toothed on its edges all round, which when extended

nearly covers the finger-like bodies, and can Be folded and unfolded

like a fan. When ee animal is at rest these organs are folded up

222 Zovlogical Society.

underneath the head in the same manner as a butterfly folds its pro-

boscis, but when in pursuit of the female they become extended at

full length and present a very beautiful appearance.

Five species of this genus have now heen described.

1, CHIROCEPHALUS DIAPHANUS, Prevost. Antennis inferivribus

maris validis, cylindricis, apice acuminatis, processu. dentato

ad basin articuli secundi armatis ; fronte rotundato.

Long. maris 14 lin., foeminee 1 poll.

Pro Synonymis vide “‘ Baird’s Na‘. Hist. of the British Entomos-

traca, Ray Society, 1850.”

Hab. In Anglia, Gallia, prope Genevam, &c. Xe.

This species, which occurs in many places in England, as well as in

France, Switzerland, &c., is very elegant in form, and (the male more

especially) very beautiful in colour. It is upwards of an inch in length,

slender, of a cylindrical form, and nearly transparent. In the male

the inferior antenne or cephalic horns are of a beautiful translucent

bluish green colour, tipped at the extremity with a fine red hue.

The caudal fins are of a bright red. The female has a strip of blue

along the whole length of the back, and the ovarian bag when full

of ova is conical in shape and of a reddish brown. The inferior an-

tennze of the male are very strong organs, divided into two joints ;

the basal joint is thick and fleshy, and the terminal joint is eylmdri-

eal and curved in the form of a horn, having at the base where it

joins the first joint a flat plate attached to it, beset with several stout

teeth. The apparatus which we find at the base of the first joint,

consisting of the long, flat, somewhat tapering body with its digiti-

form and fan-shaped appendages, is of a very delicate transparent

bluish green colour. The antennz of the female are short, stout,

pointed at the extremity, flexible, and slightly curved downwards.

2. CHIROCEPHALUS LACUN#®, Guérin. <Antennis inferioribus

maris validis, valde arcuatis, articulo basali magno, dentato,

terminali cylindrico, ad apicem sinuato.

Long. maris et foeminee 12-15 millim.

Branchipus lacune, Guérin, Teonog. Régn. Anim. Crustacés, 39.

tisouit. AYR:

Hab. In stagnis prope ‘‘ Fontainebleau ;”” M. Guérin.

This species, which is briefly described by M. Guérin in the ‘ Icono-

graphie du Régne Animal,’ is found in little pools of water near Fon-

tainebleau. It is transparent, but is smaller than the preceding spe-

cies, and is distinguished from it by the shape of the inferior antennze

or cephalic horns in the male. These organs are of two joints; the

basal one large, and armed on its internal edge with several stout

teeth or lobes ; the second much smaller, cylindrical, bent suddenly

back upon the first, and sinuated, or as it were slightly toothed at

the apex. The long ribbon-like appendage which springs from the

base of the first joint appears to have only two very short processes

attached to it, instead of the four long finger-like bodies, and the

fan-shaped body is not represented at all; but this part of the head

Zoological Society. 22d

is not sufficiently described by M. Guérin to enable me to satisfac-

torily ascertain its exact structure.

3. CHIROCEPHALUS CLAVIGER, Fischer. Antennis inferioribus

maris validis, articulo basalt magno, terminali parvo, ad basin

dentato, ad apicem clavato ; antennis superioribus quadri-arti-

culatis ; fronte rotundato.

Long. 8-10 lin.

Branchipus claviger, Seb. Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische Reise,

il. Wirbellose, 149. t. 7. f. 1-11 (1851).

Hab. In fluvio Taimyr, in Siberia ; Middendorf.

This species, which is about 8 or 10 lines long, was discovered by

M. Middendorff in a pool of water by the river Taimyr in Siberia.

The inferior antennz of the male are strong organs ; the basal joint

being stout and fleshy and the terminal narrow, provided with about

a dozen small teeth at its base, and ending in a club-shaped extre-

mity. The digitiform appendages are more numerous apparently

than in C. diaphanus. They arise from the extremity of the long

riband-like appendage, instead of from its base, and each of them

. has several teeth on the sides and apex. In the female these an-

tennze are small, narrow and sharp-pointed. The superior antennze

are divided into four articulations.

4. CurROCEPHALUS BIROSTRATUS, Fischer. Antennis inferio-

ribus maris validis, articulo basali magno, terminali mediocri,

prope basin processu elongato armato, ad apicem uncinato.

Long. 10-12 lin.

Branchipus birostratus, Seb. Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische

Reise, it.) 7 .f-.12-16 (1851).

Hab. Prope urbem “ Charkow”’ in Russia; J%scher.

This species is about 10 or 12 lines long, and was found by

Fischer in the neighbourhood of the town of Charkow, in Russia.

The inferior antennz of the male are strong organs, the basal joint

stout and fleshy, the terminal of moderate size, having, springing

from near its base, a somewhat elongated process armed with sharp

teeth at its extremity, and ending in a sort of hooked point. The

riband-like process appears similar to that of C. diaphanus.

5. CHrrocepHaLus MIppDENDORFFIANUS, Fischer. Antennis

inferioribus maris validis, articulo basali magno, longissimo,

numerose dentato, terminali cylindrico, acuto; antennis supe-

rioribus quadri-articulatis ; fronte quadrangulari.

Long. 7-- lin.

Branchipus Middendorffianus, Seb. Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibi-

rische Reise, ii. 153. t. 7. f. 17-23 (1851).

Hab. In fluviis “ Taimyr et Boganida” in Siberia; prope “ Tri-

Ostrowa”’ in Lapponia ; Middendorf’.

This species, which is only from 7 to 9 lines in length, was found

by Middendorff in pools on the banks of the rivers Taimyr and Bo-

ganida in Siberia, and in Lapland near Tri-Ostrowa. The inferior

antenne inthe male are stout organs, the basal joint being very long

224, Zoological Society.

and fleshy and armed along the inner edge with a long row of many

teeth, the terminal being cylindrical in shape and pointed at the ex-

tremity. The superior antenne are four-jointed, and the front of

the head is of a quadrangular shape. The ovarian sac in the fe-

male is long and rather slender, and appears to be notched at the

base.

Genus Artemia, Leach.

Corpus molle, gracile ; segmentum caudale pinnis nullis instruc-

tum ; pedes undecim ; antenne inferiores maris magne, biarticu-

late, compresse, appendicibus nullis armate.

Syn. Cancer, Linneus.—Gammarus, Fabricius.—Lulimene, La-

treille et auctorum.—<Artemia, Leach et auctorum.— Branchipus,

Latreille, Fischer, &e.—Artemisus, Lamarck.— Artemis, Thompson.

The body in this genus consists of the same number of segments

as in the three preceding, is soft and without covering, but is more

slender in shape, and has the caudal segment simply bilobed at the

extremity, instead of being armed with two large plumose fins. The

inferior antenne in the male are large, flat-shaped, broad, and di-

vided into two articulations. The basal joint has neither the antenni-

form appendage of Branchipus and Streptocephalus, nor the compli-

cated digitiform and fan-shaped apparatus of Chirocephalus. They

inhabit salt water, frequently even in water which is very highly

charged with salt. They swim upon their backs.

The genus Hulimene was founded by Latreille in 1817, in Cuy.

Régn. An. Ist edit. ii. 68; that of drtemia by Leach in 1819, in

the Dict. Sc. Nat. xiv. The term Hulimene, however, had been pre-

viously used by Peron for a genus of dealepha, and though the name

Artemia is liable to objections from its construction (Artemia for

Artemis), I prefer adopting it to burdening the nomenclature with

another synonym.

Five species have been described.

I. ArTemia sauina, Leach. Antennis inferioribus maris validis,

compressis, articulo secundo lato apice acuminato, basali uni-

dentato ; segmento caudali setigero ; ovario quadrilateralt.

Long. 6 lin.

Pro Synonymis vide ‘‘ Baird’s British Entomostraca,’’ et adde :—

Hulimene-albida, Latreille, Nouv. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. x. 535; Cuv.

Régn. An. 2nd edit. iv. 178; Desmarest, Cons. gen. Crust. 394 ;

Risso, Hist. Nat. Eur. Mérid. v. 165; Lamarck, Hist. Nat. An. s.

Vert. 2nd edit. v. 199 (note); M. Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust. iti.

371; White, Catalogue of Crustacea, Brit. Mus.

Artemia Eulimene, Leach, Dict. Se. Nat. xiv. 543.

Hab. In salinis ad “ Lymington,” in Anglia ; prope “ Montpellier,”’

in Gallia; in-Mediterraneo, prope “ Nice,” &c.

This species, which seems to have been first observed by M.

Schlosser, m the salt-pans at Lymington, is nearly white, slender,

and about half an inch in length. The abdomen 1s long, fully as

long as the body, and the caudal segment is simply divided into two

small lobes, which give origin to several short sete. The inferior

Zoological Society. 225

antennz in the male are divided into two articulations, the basal one

of which has on its inner edge at about half of its length, a short,

stout, conical tooth. The terminal joint is broad, bends nearly at a

right angle about the middle of its length, and terminates in a sharp

point. In the female these organs resemble closely those of the pre-

ceding genus. The ovarian bag is large, of a quadrilateral shape,

somewhat pointed at the two sides, and opens at both sides to allow

the ova to escape.

The'genus Lulimene was founded by Latreille to receive a small

crustacean which was found by M. Cuvier amongst some marine

animals which he had received from Nice. The chief character by

which he distinguished the genus was the extreme shortness of the

abdomen, which he considered terminated almost immediately after

the last pair of feet in a swollen, semiglobular lobe filled with a

blackish matter, and having springing from it a long thread-like body,

of a dark colour also, and which he conjectured might be an oviduct.

In the British Museum are many specimens of this little animal,

received by Dr. Leach from M. Cuvier, and labelled by Dr. Leach

himself, ‘‘ drtemia Eulimene, from Nice, given by M. Cuvier.’ From

a careful examination of this species I consider it specifically identical

with the Cancer salinus of Linnzeus, the Artemia salina of Leach.

The specimens in the Museum are all females, and upon comparing

them with specimens of Artemia salina from Lymington, no differ-

ence is perceptible, except that the specimens from Nice are rather

whiter in colour and have the ovarian bag and abdomen of a darker

hue. It is undoubtedly this dark-coloured ovarian bag that was

mistaken by Latreille for the termination of the body, and the “long

filament like an oviduct”’ which springs from it, is in reality the

abdomen. The difference in colour evidently depends upon the food

of the animal, the alimentary canal of the specimens from Nice being

filled with a dark-coloured matter, thus giving the abdomen a blackish

hue, while those from Lymington have the canal filled with matter -

of a brownish tint. In the second edition of the ‘ Régne Animal,’

in his notice of the Artemia salina, Latreille says, it isa species, ‘ sur

lequel nous n’avons encore que des renseignements trés imparfaits.”’

From this it would appear that le had never seen that species, and

as most probably the specimens he had received from Cuvier were

a little injured from having been preserved in spirits, it is not at all

surprising that he did not observe the identity of the two.

2. Arremt1A Mitsausenn, Fischer. Antennis inferioribus maris

gracilibus, articulo secundo angusto ; segmentis duobus cepha-

licis longis, segmento caudali bilobato, non setigero.

Long. 5 lin.

Branchipus Milhausenti, Fischer, Bull. de la Soe. Imp. Nat. Mos-

cou, vil. 1834.

Artemia Mulhausenti, M. Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust. ii. 370.

Artemia salina, Rathke, Faun. der Krym. 395. t. 6. f. 14-21.

Hab. In lacu salino * Loak’’ in Crimea ; M. Milhausen.

This species, which was found by M. Milhausen in the salt-

Amn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 15

226 Zoological Society.

water lake of Loak in the Crimea, is about 5 lines in length and of a

brown colour. The inferior antennze of the male are much more

slender than in the preceding species. The basal joint has no tooth

and the terminal joint is cylindrical and pointed. The superior an-

tennee, according to Fischer, have the first joint very short and of an

obconical form, and the two cephalic segments are considerably elon-

gated. The abdomen is slender, shorter than the body, and is termi-

nated by a simple bilobed process not furnished with setze. The feet

are rather long, and the terminal joint is armed with long filaments.

In the month of July these animals abound in great numbers ;

they fill the lake and give the water a brick-red colour.

3. ArTeMIA GuILpINGII, Thompson. Species hec, reperta in

India Occidental, delineata est a Domino Thompson in ‘ Zoo-

logical Researches,’ sed non descripta, necnon satis accurate

delineata est.

Artemis Guildingi, Thompson, Zool. Research. Fase. v. t. 1. f. 11.

Hab. In insula ‘“‘ St. Vincent’s,”’ in India Occidentali; Rev. L.

Guilding.

This species is figured by Mr. Thompson, but not sufficiently de-

scribed to enable me to give a good diagnosis of it. It was found at

St. Vincent’s in the West Indies by the Rey. Lansdowne Guilding,

by whom its natural history was intended to have been more fully

detailed. The body seems to be thick and the abdomen shorter than

the body and stout. The caudal segment does not appear to be

lobed nor setigerous. The cephalic segment is conical in shape, and

the superior antennze, according to Mr. Thompson’s figure, consist

each of four joints. The ovarian sac consists, according to the same

authority, of two articulations.

4, ARTEMIA ARIETINA, Fischer. Antennis inferioribus maris

validis, articulo secundo latissimo, basali unidentato ; antennis

superioribus apice furcatis, setigeris ; segmento caudali bilo-

bato, lobis setigeris.

Long. 4-6 lin,

Artemia arietina, Fischer, Middendorft’s Sibirische Reise, ii. 156.

t. 7. f. 31-35 (1851).

Hab. In vicinitate urbis Odessee ; Middendorff.

This species, which was found by Middendorff in the neighbour-

hood of the town of Odessa, is about from 4 to 6 lines in length. It

approaches very near to the Artemia salina. The inferior antennze

in the male have the second joint very broad and flat and sharp-

pointed. The superior antennze are forked at the extremity, the

forks unequal, each having two terminal sete. The eye is very large

and the caudal segment is bilobed, each lobe terminating in three

pretty long sete.

5. ArremtaA Kopprentana, Fischer. <Antennis duabus ut in pre-

cedente ; segmento caudali non lobato nee setigero.

Long. 23-3 hn.

Artemia Koppeniana, Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische Reise, ii.

157. t. 7. f. 36-37 (1851).

Hab. In Russia Australi; Koppen.

Zoological Society. 227

This species was found in Southern Russia by M. Koppen, and is

only from 21 to 3 lines in length. Its principal difference consists

in the form of the caudal segment, which is not lobed at the ex-

tremity, but is simply squared off and has no setee springing from it.

Genus Potyartemta, Fischer.

Corpus molle, gracile; segmentum caudale pinnis nullis instructum ;

pedes branchiales, paribus novemdecim. Antenne inferiores

maris bi-articulate, articuli terminales in ramos duos divisi et

dentibus numerosis instructi; articuli basales appendicibus

tenuibus armati.

Polyartemia, Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische Reise, ii. 154

1851).

This genus was founded by Sebastian Fischer to receive a species of

the family Branchipodide, which differs in some respects from any

of the genera of the family. It is furnished with appendages to the

male inferior antennz, which are two-jointed, approaching in this

respect to the genus Chirocephalus—and it is destitute of caudal fins,

resembling in this structure the genus Artemia—but the number of

feet is nineteen pairs, and the male inferior antennze have each of the

terminal joints divided into two broad, flat branches, the one over-

lying the other like the branches of a pair of scissors. These branches

are furnished on their edges with three or four rows of sharp teeth,

The basal jomt has a rounded process at about half its length armed

with short setze. The appendages attached to these organs are coni-

cal in form, thin, and apparently not provided with digitiform or fla-

belliform appendages. The abdominal portion of the body is shorter

in proportion than in any of the other genera, and the ovarian sac of

the female is moderately large and lies close upon the abdomen,

seeming when viewed from above to be amalgamated with it. The

male organ is cylindrical, four-jointed, and is contained in a sheath

which is serrated on one side.

Polyartemia forcipata, Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische Reise,

ii. 154. t. 7. f. 24-28.

As this is the only species yet known, the generic characters given

above will suffice. :

Hab. In fluviis “Trundra, Taimyr et Boganida’”’ in Siberia; et

prope “ Tri-Ostrowa”’ in Lapponia; Middendorf.

Species hujus familie, incerte sedis aut que dubie@ sunt—

Genus Brancuipus?

1. Branehipus ferox, M. Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust. iii. 369.

This species, according to M. Milne-Edwards, has neither the an-

tenniform appendage attached to the inferior antennze of the male

of Branchipus, nor the complicated apparatus of Chirocephalus.

They are pointed at the extremity, and thus differ also from these

organs in Streptocephalus. The description given of this species by

M. Edwards is so short, that it is difficult to say to what genus it

15*

228 Zoological Society.

may belong. His description is as follows :—<‘ Cornes céphaliques -

sans appendice prés du cdté interne de leur base, pointues au bout et

sans dent sur le bord externe. Abdomen lisse, nageoires caudales

longues et ¢troites. Longueur environ 15 lignes. Habite les eaux

douces aux environs d’Odessa.”’

2. Cancer paludosus, Miller, Zool. Dan. ii. 10. t. 48. f. 1-8;

Herbst, Krabben, ii. 118. t. 35. f. 3-5.

Most authors have assumed this species to be the same as the

Chirocephalus diaphanus. As M. Milne-Edwards very properly

observes, however, the figure of this species given by Muller shows

no appearance of the complicated apparatus belonging to the male

antennze of Chirocephalus. There does not appear either to be any

antenniform appendage belonging to them, as in the genus Branchi-

pus, and the structure of the antennz themselves removes it also

from the genus Streptocephalus.

3. Some fragments of a species of Branchipode were brought by

Sir John Richardson from Cape Krusenstern in N. America, col-

lected there by Mr. J. Rae in August 1849, along with the dpus

glacialis. They consist of portions of two males and two females.

The male antennze are two-jointed ; the basal joint is thick, and has

at its lower part near its junction with the second a row of small

teeth ; the second joint is cylindrical and pointed. The female horns

or antennee are flat apparently, and have a short hooked spine at the

extremity. The caudal fins are rather long and fringed with long

cilia. In some respects this species resembles the figure of the Cancer

paludosus of Miller, but the fragments are too much decayed in the

spirits to enable me further to describe it. It does not appear to

have either antenniform appendages or any apparatus attached to the

antennee of the male.

Should these three species prove to be distinct, they may form

another genus of this family, characterized by the want of these ap-

pendages and the toothed or serrated basal joint of the male cephalic

horns.

Genus STREPTOCEPHALUS ”?

4. A figure of a species of Branchipode was exhibited at a meeting

of the Zoological Society by Dr. Nicholson in February 1851. The

figure was not sufficiently accurately made to enable the species or

genus to be made out. In all probability, however, it may prove to

be a species of Streptocephalus. It is a native of India and inhabits

freshwater ponds.

Genus ARTEMIA

M. Audouin, m the Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de la France, v. Bull.

61, 1836, mentions a species of Artemia closely allied to Art. salina,

as inhabiting the salt lakes of Egypt. In the Amn. des Se. Nat.

2nd ser. vi. 230, he again mentions the fact, that numbers of Artemia

have been found in the “lacs de natron”’ in Egypt; but no further

description has ever been given of them.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh, 229

Family Limnapiav&.

Genus LimNapIA.

Sp. LimnapIA ANTILLARUM, NOV. sp.

Carapace valves of a rounded oval shape, and of a transparent

whitish colour; prominent on dorsal margin where the muscular

attachment of the body takes place, sloping from thence rather sud-

denly towards anterior extremity where it forms a somewhat blunt

point, and more gradually to posterior extremity, which, as well as

ventral margin, is rounded. Antennules bluntly serrated or crenu-

lated on their upper edge, rather shorter than the peduncles of large

antenne, which are stout and not half the length of the body. They

consist of nine articulations, each having one or two long plumose

setee springing from the under edge, and one short stout spine at each

joint on the upper edge. Caudal lamellee of considerable length, and

beset on upper edge with long plumose setee to within a short di-

stance of the tip, which is somewhat curved, sharp-pointed and

slightly serrated on upper edge. Feet 18 pairs.

The structure of the carapace is the same as in Limnadia Her-

manni, the surface being covered with minute dots or puncturations.

_ This species differs from the two others in the shape of the cara-

pace and in having the setze of antennze and tail plumose.

Hab. St. Domingo, West Indies; M. Sal/é. Mus. Brit.

Genus EsTHERiA.

Sp. Estuerra Dauuastt, noy. sp.

Carapace valves shortly obovate and flat, upper margin from the

beaks to two-thirds of its length almost straight ; anterior extremity

rather broader than posterior. Beaks prominent and situated near an-

terior extremity. The shell is ofa light horny colour and very thin and

translucent. Ribs elevated, smooth and numerous, about 20 in num-

ber. The intermediate spaces are concave and are covered all over with

rough-looking spots of an irregular size and appearance, approaching

somewhat in structure to that of brasiliensis. It differs from that

species however in size and in being of a more rounded oval shape.

Hab. Brazil? I am indebted for this species to Mr. Dallas, who

found it in a collection of insects chiefly from Brazil. Mus. Brit.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

June 8, 1854.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair,

The following papers were read :— i

1. “On the Plants of the Coal Epoch, and on the general Struc-

ture of Coal,” by Professor Balfour.

After alluding to the importance of studying carefully the Fossil

Flora, Dr. Balfour proceeded to make remarks on the structure of

the plants connected with the Coal epoch. He particularly noticed

230 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

the occurrence of scalariform, pitted, and punctated vessels. He

was disposed to think that porous vessels had been in some instances

mistaken for true punctated woody tissue, which is characterized by

the presence of a circle and a dot in the centre. The presence of

Sigillarie and Stigmarie in coal, and the conversion of their outer

portion into carbonaceous matter, clearly showed that these plants

were concerned in the formation of this material. He did not agree

with those who supposed that coniferous wood alone formed coal, nor

with those who thought that certain rings which appeared on sections

of coal parallel to the plane of stratification were the ends of woody

tubes. Various plants appear to have joined to form coal, which

may account for the differences in the appearance of different parts

of the same bed. Specimens were shown of Parrot coal enclosing

numerous thin seams of Cherry coal. The extensive fern vegetation

of the carboniferous epoch was probably connected with a paucity of

other species, and seems to indicate a uniformity of temperature

throughout a large area. Many plants, however, which aré consi-

dered as Ferns, or allied to Ferns, may prove to be Gymnosperms.

True punctated coniferous structure may be seen occasionally in

coal, but it must be borne in mind that this tissue occurs in other

plants, such as Winteracee, and that tissue very much resembling it,

and apt to be confounded with it, has also been detected in many other

orders. Much is still wanting to enable a fossil botanist to speak

decidedly in regard to the true nature of many of the coal plants.

In many coals evident sporangia have been detectedin large quantities.

These resemble the spore-cases of Lycopods. In Fordel coal

these sporangia are in vast abundance, and they are associated with

Middletonite.

The varieties of coal are very numerous. There is a gradual pass-

age from Anthracite to Household and Parrot Coal; and the limit

between coal and what is called bituminous shale is by no means de-

finite. Judging by chemical products, as well as by microscopical

and other characters, there seems no reason for separating Boghead

or Torbane, Capeldrae, Methil, and other brown Parrot coals from

the category of true coals. Dr. Fyfe has imstituted careful analyses,

by which he showed that Boghead Gas Coal and Boghead Household

Coal yield the usual coal products, viz. ammoniacal liquor, tar,

naphtha, benzole, naphthaline, grease oil, pitch oil, paraftine and

pitch. As to bitumen, a matter soluble in naphtha, this exists in

very small quantity in coals, and is less abundant in Torbane coal

than in English caking coal. Dr. Fyfe states that in—

Per cent.

Capeldrae coal there is of matter soluble in naphtha. 0-0

Torbane black coal ... es st esha gett a Ore 1:2

Morbane white coal... ... s. HES. Ree RE

Liesmahapow a7 co aul De eee ieee

While in English caking coal it is 4:2, 5:8, and even 8 per cent.

According to Dr. Fyfe, the following are some of the results as

regards volatile matter and coke :—

Linnean Society. 231

Volatile matter

per cent. Coke.

eapearhaire) cosh | fi. jo leh: ceyieirip)s) 5 %)n ep ibm 9 26°6 73°4

Mashead/epal sip siae abe fas ek 22 4) 690 31°0

Wemyss, Capeldrae, Methil ........ 33°41

Methil, upper part of seam ........ 70°5

Methil, lower part of seam = ........ 37°7

While in Boghead coal the quantity of carbon is small, the quantity

of hydrogen is large, and hence there is a small proportion only of

fixed carbon left. There is a difference in the quantity of coke ac-

cording as the coal is heated slowly or rapidly ; when the heating is

rapid the quantity of coke is smaller. The quantity of white ash left

by many coals is very large. This is particularly the case in Loch-

gelly, Capeldrae, Wemyss, and Torbane coals.

On reviewing all that had been recently done in the examination of

coal, Dr. Balfour is disposed to think that there is still a great want

of information on the subject, and he particularly alluded to the fact

that no chemist had given an analysis of the reddish-brown or yellow

matter which is met with in coal, more particularly in Boghead gas

coal, and that until this was done it was impossible to decide as to its

bituminoid or resinous nature.

Professor Fleming entered at length upon the subject of the for-

mation of coal, and alluded particularly to the differences often ob-

servable in strata of the same bed, which he thought indicated a dif-

ference either in the materials of which they had been formed, or in

the manner in which the deposit had taken place. He heartily con-

curred in Professor Balfour’s views.

Professor Edward Forbes stated that although he had not hitherto

taken part in the investigation that had recently occupied so much

attention in Edinburgh, he felt that it was one of great importance.

He thought a mistake had occurred in regarding coal as a mineral

rather than as a rock, and showed that we ought not to confine our

ideas of coal to the deposits of the carboniferous system. He parti-

cularly alluded to the cretaceous and to other beds of coal found in

various parts of the world. He thought Dr. Fleming’s views to be

nearer the truth than any that had as yet come under his notice. We

are very much in the dark as to the real character of many of the

fossil plants, and more so in regard to those which have been con-

verted into coal, even if it were necessary to assume that that material

was entirely of vegetable origin.

2. “ Notice of new localities for rare Plants in the neighbourhood

of Edinburgh,” by Professor Balfour.

LINNAZAN SOCIETY.

December 20, 1853.—Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Read, a ‘‘ Notice regarding a Weevil of the Vine and its Parasite.”

By John Curtis, Esq., F.L-S. &c.

Numerous insects have long since been noticed as injurious to

vines in the South of Europe, and their history and ceconomy have

232 Linnean Society.

been ably discussed by Baron Walckenaer and M. Audouin. Among

the Beetles is a weevil, named by Fabricius Attelabus Betuleti (Rhyn-

chites of Schénherr and other authors), which occasionally produces

very extensive mischief to the vines of Burgundy, while in England

its attacks are limited to the birch. During a residence at Genoa

in June last, Mr. Curtis was obligingly taken to the Botanic Garden

by M. Mussino to see ative the Chrysomela Americana, L., which

inhabits a species of lavender, and his attention was called to the

vines against the walls, which were attacked by the mildew, so widely

spread during the past summer through Médoc and the wine-growing

districts of France and Italy, and especially in ‘Tuscany and Piedmont.

While examining this mildew, he perceived many of the leaves of

the vine rolled up like cigars; but the elaborate memoir of M. Debey

on Aitelabus Betule, L., renders it unnecessary to enter into detail

on the wonderful mode in which these little animals generally cut

and roll the leaves with mathematical precision. It is necessary,

however, to state that the female weevil cuts the leaf through across

the diameter, without dividing the midrib, then deposits an egg or

two upon the upper surface, and subsequently rolls up the lower

portion, leaving the upper part untouched, so that it remains green,

and the leaf does not fall off for a considerable period, often probably

until the tree sheds its leaves. In her mode of manipulation, how-

ever, the Aftelabus Betuleti seems to differ from the 4. Betule and

most other weevils, inasmuch as the author observed, on cutting

transversely, that the entire leaf appeared to be rolled up, from the

base to the tip.

Mr. Curtis’s principal object, however, in bringing the sub-

ject before the Society, was to call attention to a memoir by

Prof. Filippi of Turin, published in the ‘ Nuovi Annali delle Scienze

Naturali di Bologna’ for January and February 1852, entitled ‘“ Storia

Genetica di un Insetto Parasito delle Uova del Rhynchites Betuleti,”

a notice of which is given in the ‘ Annals of Natural History ’ for

June of the same year.

Read also ‘‘ Remarks on the so-called Eye-spot of the Infusoria

and Microscopic Alge.”’ By Arthur Henfrey, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

Mr. Henfrey states, that in the course of an extensive series of

observations on the microscopic Algz, especially in investigations of

the effect of reagents upon the tissues and contents of the cells, he

has frequently been completely baffied by the uncertainty which

presented itself as to the real existence of colours exhibited by

objects. ‘The decomposition of light taking place in these minute

bodies under high magnifymg powers is such, that even with

lenses most carefully corrected and fully sufficient for all general

purposes of investigation, we are left altogether in doubt as to

whether or not the phenomena of colour arise from refraction.

He uses lenses made by Ross about eight years since, a quarter

and an eighth of an inch, the latter of excellent defining power,

and is convinced that these are not inferior to any glasses in use on

the continent. But with them, particularly the latter, delicate

membranes seen edgeways exhibit a blue tint, under certain cir-

Linnean Society. 233

cumstances, often giving rise to a difficulty in arriving at a decided

opinion in questions connected with cellulose, when using the

sulphuric acid and iodine test. Many phenomena might be cited in

reference to this subject, but the main point to which he wishes to

direct attention is, the doubt existing in his mind as to the nature

of the red spot described by Ehrenberg as an ‘eye’ in the Infusoria.

He has observed this object chiefly in the unicellular Alge and

zoospores, and was first led to suspect that the red colour depended

on unequal refraction, in the cells of Chlamydomonas Pulvisculus. In

these he has frequently found several red spots on one individual

cell, which however could not all be brought into focus at once, and

he has decidedly observed, that when these spots were brought into

clear and well-defined focus, they appeared as bright colourless

granules. Frequently no red spot at all could be found.

The idea suggested by this was further confirmed by noticing

the similar variations of colour according to form in a granule

(nucleolus ?), in a half-decomposed, colourless, diseased cell.

Finally, he had recently found that he could bring out the crimson

colour most beautifully in the central spot or ‘hilum’ of starch

granules. When the lens is a little too far away from the object,

the hilum appears like a minute black spot; then, carrying the lensa

little nearer, it comes out as a beautiful crimson spot exactly like an

‘eye-spot ° in every respect. Adjusting the focus exactly, by bringing

down the lens a little more, the hilum is seen as a well-defined spot

of a brighter character than the rest of the starch-grain, but altogether

devoid of any prismatic colour.

Although dwelling but briefly on this question here, Mr. Henfrey

states that he has had it under consideration for some time, and he

thinks it desirable to make known his supposition now, in order that

other microscopists working with different lenses may direct their

attention to the point, and furnish the results obtained with them,

since almost all high objectives differ slightly in their correction.

Read further, ‘“‘ Notes on the Natural Order Crescentiacee.” By

Berthold Seemann, Esq., Ph.D., F.L.S. &c.

The author cites first the opinions in relation to the proper posi-

tion of the genus Crescentia and its allies in the natural system

successively entertained by De Jussieu, Endlicher and DeCandolle,

the latter of whom associated them with Bignoniacee. Gardner first

pointed out their claims to be regarded as a distinct natural order

allied to the family last named, and Prof. Lindley adopted this view

and first gave a diagnosis of the order, taken however only from a

single species, Crescentia Cujete, L., for which reason Dr. Seemann

proposes the following amended character.

CRESCENTIACER.

Frutices vel arbores, glabra v. glabrate ; caule ramisque plis minisve

angulatis. Folia alterna, fasciculata, v. opposita, petiolata v. subsessilia,

nunc simplicia, sepissimé integerrima, nune composita, 3-foliolata, v.

pari- v. impari-pinnata. Sé7pule nulle, v. interdum e gemme axillaris

foliis primariis spuriz. Flores hermaphroditi, subregulares, v. irregu-

lares, terminales v. axillares, vy, seepissimé ex trunco aut basi ramulorum

234: Miscellaneous.

orti. Calyx liber, gamophyllus, persistens, 5-merus, v. varius, deciduus,

spathaceus, v. bipartitus. Corolla hypogyna, gamopetala, subcam~-

panulata, infundibuliformis, v. hypocraterimorpha ; limbo 5-lobo, sub-

quali v. subbilabiato; Jobis per zestivationem duplicato-plicatis v. sub-

plicato-imbricatis. Stamina 4, cum rudimento quinti, corolle tubo

inserta, ejusdem laciniis alterna, exserta v. inclusa. F%lamenta sim-

plicia. Anthere biloculares. Discus hypogynus glandulosus, ovarii

basin cingens, seepé obsoletus. Ovarium liberum, 1-, 2-, v. rarits

4- v. pluriloculare. Ovula indefinita. Stylus terminalis, simplex,

Stigma bilobum, v. bilamellatum. Fructus baccatus 1-, 2-, v. rarits

4- v. plurilocularis. Semina plurima, aptera. Albumen nullum.

Embryo rectus, v. subcurvatus.

Crescentiacee thus defined inhabit chiefly the tropical and subtro-

pical regions of America and Africa: they are not found in Europe

or Australia, and only one species is met with in Asia. Several

species are cultivated, and have become naturalized in different

parts of the Old World ; none possess any poisonous qualities. As

far as at present known, the Order is composed of about thirty

species, distributed under nine genera.

Dr. Seemann next adverts to the genus Oxycladus, described by

Mr. Miers in the twenty-first volume of the Society’s ‘Transactions’

and referred by that gentleman to Bignoniacee, of which he regards

Crescentiacee as one division, while he forms another division of the

genus Ozycladus. Dr. Seemann, however, states his opinion that

Oxycladus has nothing to do with Bignoniacee, even in the widest

sense, but belongs to Myoporacea, being allied to Stenochilus, R. Br.,

and Bontia, L.

In conclusion, the author states that he distributes the true Cres-

centiacee into two sectional subdivisions, as follows :—

1. Tanaciex. Calyce persistente, regulari, 5-fido—Colea, Peri-

blema, Phyllarthron, Tanecium, Tripinnaria, Sotor (?).

2. Crescentiex. Calyce deciduo, irregulari, spathaceo v. bipar-

tito—Parmentiera, Crescentia, Kigelia.

He adds that all the plants belonging to the Order have a tendency

to form winged petioli; and thinks it not improbable that the simple-

leaved species may hereafter be looked upon as plants with abortive

leaflets and highly-developed phyllodia. ‘The ovary too, he remarks,

in all Crescentiacee, is unilocular, with a truly parietal placentation;

and it is only when the placentz meet, as they generally do when

the fruit approaches maturity, that the placentation appears to be

axile, and the fruit two- or more celled.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Development of Coenurus cerebralis. By Prof. Van BENEDEN.

Extracts from letters to M. p— QUATREFAGES.

Tue following is the result of the experiments on Caenurus. You

know that M. Kiichenmeister had a dog which had been fed with

Cenuri at the beginning of March in the present year, and which

had been passing proglottides. This dog was killed on the 24th

Miscellaneous. 235

May, and M. Kiichenmeister forwarded some of the Tzenias of the

Cenurus to Louvain, Copenhagen, and Giessen. They arrived at

Louvain alive on the 27th May. They were immersed in the white

of an egg. I kept them alive for eight days, by renewing the white

of egg every day.

On the day of their arrival, at nine o’clock in the morning, half a

proglottis was given to each of two young sheep, about two months

old, and in the afternoon each of them took an entire proglottis. On

the 3rd June, one of them, marked No. 1, swallowed another

proglottis.

The first symptoms of vertigo made their appearance on the 13th

June; on the morning of the 15th, I was told that the one marked

No. 2 was dying. Its head was burning hot, its eyes red, its legs

bent under its body ; it beat with its head against the railings, and

turned it constantly in one direction. It was then killed.

The upper and lower surfaces of the two hemispheres of the brain

presented very irregular grooves, which might be taken for the

deserted tubes of certain Annelida; these have been already men-

tioned by M. Kiichenmeister. There were about a dozen of them.

At the end of these tubes there were the same number of Cenuri,

almost all lodged in the cortical substance of the bra. Some of

them were removed with the membranes of the brain. They were

nearly of the same size, about three or four millimetres in diameter.

These Cenuri as yet only consisted of a simple milk-white vesicle

filled with fluid. The heads (sco/ex) were not yet tobe seen. It is

the hexacanthous embryo (proscolex) a little more developed than

at its exit from the egg.

These observations agree exactly with those of M. Kichen-

meister.

In the muscles, and especially in the diaphragm, I afterwards

found some yellowish-white bodies, which may easily be distin-

guished by the naked eye amongst the red muscular fibres. These,

as M. Kichenmeister has stated, are only strayed individuals, which

are never further developed.

The second sheep (No. |) was killed on the 29th June. It pre-

sented nearly the same symptoms as the former. For the last few

days of its existence, the right fore-leg was always bent, and in walk-

ing it could not support itself upon its hoofs.

In removing the brain from the cranium, a Caenurus of the size of

a small nut fell upon the dissecting-table. Two other Caenuri, of the

same size, were found in the right hemisphere, one above, the other

behind; and in separating the hemispheres of the cerebellum, I

found two others touching the quadrigeminal tubercles. The left

lobe of the cerebellum also contained one. Eight were found in all.

These Coenuri were nearly all of the same size, except two or three

which were scarcely larger than a cherry-stone.

Through the walls of the larger ones, the naked eye could distin-

guish some little whitish flakes,—the indications of so many heads

(scolex). The smaller ones had no appearance of heads, nor of the

place from which they were to rise.

The Ccenuri were enclosed in a membrane of recent formation,

236 Miscellaneous.

produced by the inflammation of the neighbouring surfaces. This

membrane is formed of fibro-plastic tissue, or of embryonal cellular

tissue, covered with a multitude of elementary granulations.

At this period of their development, these worms are very curious.

The scoleces were beginning to be formed; but, as I expected, they

had as yet neither hooks nor suckers. The head, with its suckers

and hooks, would only have begun to show itself in eight days

afterwards.

In drawing one of these worms from its cavity and bringing it

immediately upon the object-slide of the microscope, one is asto-

nished at the great contractility of its walls. Its surface becomes

wrinkled, its edges fringed, and the worm performs tolerably ex-

tended motions, ‘which explain its action upon the cerebral mass ;

the substance of the brain in fact yields to the pressure of the para-

site. Cells are distinctly seen in the walls of the vesicle, and it is to

their contraction that its movements are due.

Beneath the walls of the vesicular worm, vessels are to be seen

very distinctly, which anastomose like a capillary network; they

correspond with the ordinary secretory apparatus of the Cestoid and

Trematode worms.

When a scolex is about to be formed in the parent vesicle, the

surface of the vesicle becomes wrinkled in a certain spot; these

wrinkles become circular ; the centre is then depressed, an eminence

appears in the centre of the depression, and the future scolex is

seen. Round the circular wrinkles, moreover, calcareous corpuscles

may already be seen, similar to those which incrust the body of the

scolex, but which do not exist on the hexacanthous embryo or

proscolex.

M. Eschricht writes to me as follows from Copenhagen, under

date the 20th June :—

“The Cenurus-Tenia taken from the dog on the 24th May at

Bautzen, arrived at Copenhagen on the forenoon of the 26th, so that

they could be swallowed by three sheep, within forty-eight hours of

their removal from the intestines of the dog. One of the sheep has

not been affected by them, but the other two were taken ill on the

fifteenth and sixteenth days. They kept their heads turned to the

right, and one could not rest except on the left side, without being

seized with violent spasms. The inflammation of the brain was very

distinct, the eyes very red. They both died on the fourth day, and

I found a large quantity of small vesicles (2 or 3 mill. im diameter)

in the pia mater and in the cortical substance. In the muscles in

general, and in the walls of the heart, as well as beneath the skin,

there were also vesicles full of a yellowish matter, which are pro-

bably, as supposed by MM. Kiichenmeister and Harchner, aborted

individuals.”

I have also received intelligence from Giessen. M. Leuckart has

observed the symptoms to rise in the same period, and has found the

Cenuri in the same state of development.

To those who can believe that the preceding results are mere

coincidences, I may observe, that the Canurus is so far from bemg

common here, that I waited three years before I was able to obtain

Miscellaneous. 237

one for my collection; and that as I can say beforehand I shall

find Cenuri of such a size and of such a degree of development, the

question of coincidence is set at rest. It might as well be said, that

the plants we gather do not arise from the seeds which have been

put into the earth.— Comptes Rendus, July 3, 1854, p. 46.

THECACERA PENNIGERA.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Weymouth, August 13, 1854.

GENTLEMEN,—lI have the pleasure of announcing the capture by

myself of two specimens of what I consider, without the slightest

doubt, to be Thecacera pennigera of Montagu: see Brit. Moll. iii.

p-575. The only difference I can at present detect is in the number

of appendages surrounding the vent. Montagu makes them five in

number, whilst I make them three. I feel considerable doubt in

any way questioning the accuracy of such an extraordinarily accurate

observer as Montagu. I have placed the specimens in far more

able hands than mine for description. The first specimen lived in

my dredging vessel, in a bottle of salt water, for six weeks. It isa

very lively animal, and fond of swimming foot upwards on the top

of the water. This was obtained on the 31st July last. The second

specimen I caught yesterday, whilst fishing in ten fathoms water,

gravelly bottom, in company with Mr. H. Adams and two other

friends; this was dispatched by post. I yesterday obtained, for the

first time this season, Antiopa cristata ; they were, however, small.

Iam, Gentlemen, yours truly,

Wixtxi1aAM THompson.

P.S.—Since writing the above, I have received a communication

from Mr. Albany Hancock, to whom I had sent the specimen

obtained on the 31st July, and who fully concurs with me as to its

being the true Thecacera pennigera.

ATHYRIUM RHETICUM.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

British Museum, 28th August 1854.

GENTLEMEN,—The year before last I gathered at Hridge, near

Tunbridge Wells, on a bit of ground from which trees had been

recently removed, some plants of Athyrium Filiz-foemina with the

erect habit, curled pinnules, and apparently linear frond, which are

given by Mr. Moore, in the 2nd edition of his ‘ Handbook of British

Ferns,’ as the characteristics of 4. rheticum; I have since noticed

in Scotland that plants of this species, growing on walls where they

are exposed to the sun, frequently assume a similar habit; and on

recently visiting a part of Tilgate Forest, where I had, two years since,

gathered abundance of the normal state of 4. Filix-faemina, together

with most luxuriant specimens of Polypodium Phegopteris, 1 found

(the trees haying been cleared away in the mean time) only the rie-

238 Miscellaneous.

ticum form of Athyrium, and some much-dwarfed P. Phegopteris :

the Athyrium had all the characters of 4. rheticum most thoroughly

developed, and yet I cannot but thik that the same plants were the

normal state of A. Filiv-feemina two years back; the pinnules of

P. Phegopteris, even, had a strong inclination to curl. These obser-

vations induce me to believe that 4. rheticum and A. Filix-foemina

are identical, the differences between them depending only on the

external conditions under which the plants grow,—the influence of

the sun inducing the erect rigid habit in the fronds and pinne, and

the curling in the pinnules of 4. rheticum ; and shade and moisture

causing the lax, drooping, dilate frond and flat pimnules observable

in A, Filiv-foemina.

I trouble you with these remarks in the hope that, should you

insert them in the ‘ Annals,’ some of your readers may be able to

confirm my observations.

I am, Sir, yours very obediently,

S. O. Gray.

On the occurrence of Larve of Sarcophaga in the Human Eye and

Nose. By Dr. E. Gruse.

Several cases of the occurrence of the larvee of insects in the

human eye have been noticed, but the species or even the genus to

which they belonged has never yet been ascertained. Thus a com-

munication of Cabrira’s, in Von Siebold’s Report upon the progress of

Helminthology in 1848, mentions that a man who had slept in the

open air was attacked by pain in the left eye on the following day.

A small red spot was observed on the sclerotic coat, and on rubbing

with the upper eyelid, small white worms appeared upon the cornea

and the rest of the eyeball; about forty of them were removed. They

were of the thickness of a hair, half a line long, and had a small black

head. Ormond also observed two cases of inflammation of the eye

in which several small larvee of Dipterous insects made their ap-

pearance.

I have to communicate an analogous circumstance observed by

Dr. Schnee of Gorigoutzk, in which the specific determination of the

insect was possible. Two boys, one four, the other twelve years old,

who had slept in the open field during some hot weather, felt, on

awaking, a smarting pain in the inner angle of the eye, which gradu-

ally increased with violent inflammation, until at last the affected eye

lost all power of sight. On examination, Dr. Schnee found in the

angle of the eye a mass of maggots, which had destroyed the con-

junctiva and the cellular tissue, and penetrated so deeply into the

orbit that the hinder end was completely imbedded between the orbit

and the eye-ball, although the length of the body is stated at 9 lines.

After all the larvee had been removed (there were about twelve or

fifteen of them), the internal muscles of the eye were seen as com-

pletely freed of cellular tissue as if they had been prepared.

In drawing the larvee out with forceps, most of them were so in-

jured that they did not assume the pupa state ; some acquired this

Meteorological Observations. 239

form, and of these I have the flies before me. They belong to the

genus Sarcophaga, and are either the S. ruralis or S. latifrons,

Fallen *.

Dr. Schnee adds, that he has met with similar but smaller larvee in

the nose of a Jewess, who experienced indescribable pain in that

part ; he was unable, however, to extract them uninjured, so that

they did not attain the pupa state.

According to Ruthe+, the larva of Sarcophaga latifrons has

repeatedly been extracted from ulcers of the ear.—Archiv fiir Natur-

geschichte, xix. p. 282.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JULY 1854,

Chiswick.—July 1. Heavy rain: overcast. 2. Very fine: slight rain. 3. Slight

rain: fine. 4. Densely clouded. 5. Showery. 6. Very fine: heavy showers.

7. Overcast: heavy showers. 8. Rain: very fine: clear. 9. Very fine: cloudy.

10. Showery: heavy rain at night. 11. Cloudy. 12. Drizzly: densely overcast.

13. Very fine. 14. Overcast: clear. 15. Densely clouded: very fine. 16. Very

fine. 17. Rain: very fine. 18—21. Very fine: air very dry. 22. Quite cloud-

less. 23. Clear andcalm. 24. Sultry: lightning at night. 25. Very hot: light-

ning at night. 26. Slight haze: cloudy: rain. 27. Easterly haze: rain. 28.

Clear and fine. 29. Slight fog: cloudy. 30. Very fine : thunder-storm 2 to 5 p.m.

31. Uniformly overcast : heavy thunder clouds.

Mean temperature of the month ............. Bee, Be: 61°59

Mean temperature of July 1853 2.02.0 sccecssecconscccvacsscesees 61 -94

Mean temperature of July for the last twenty-eight years... 63 +17

Ayerage amount of rain in July, .....<c-.c<scssesoesceosscess «.-» 2°42 inches.

Boston.—July 1. Cloudy: rain a.m. 2. Cloudy. 3. Cloudy: raine.m. 4.

Fine: raine.M. 5, Fine. 6,7. Cloudy. 8. Cloudy: rain a.m. 9. Cloudy.

10. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 11. Cloudy. 12. Rain a.m.andp.m. 13.

Cloudy. 14, 15. Cloudy: rain a.m.andp.m. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain a.m.

and p.m. 18. Cloudy: rain a.m. 19,20. Cloudy. 21. Fine: thermometer 84°

5pm. 22—24. Fine. 25—29. Cloudy. 30. Fine. 31. Cloudy: rain a.m.

and P.M.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—July 1. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 2. Cloudy a.m, :

showers p.M. 3. Cloudy a.M.:rainp.m. 4. Rain a.m.: fogp.m. 5. Cloudy a.m.:

hazy p.m. 6. Bright a.M.: rain p.m. 7. Clear a.m.: clear, finer.m. 8. Bright,

fine a.M.: cloudy p.m. 9. Drizzle a.m.: cloudyp.m. 10. Bright a.m.: cloudy

p.M. 11. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 12. Drizzle a.m. and p.m. 13. Rain a.m. :

damp p.m. 14, Damp 4.M.and p.m. 15. Rain A.m.: clear, fine p.m. 16. Cloudy

a.m. : cloudy, fine p.m. 17. Damp a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 18. Clear, fine a.m. :

fine, fog p.m. 19. Hazy a.m.: cloudy p.m. 20, 21. Clear, fine a.m. and p.m.

22. Showers a.m.: clear p.M. 23,24. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 25. Drizzle a.m.:

cloudy p.m. 26. Showers A.M.: clear, fine p.m. 27. Clear a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m.

28. Clear, fine A.M. and p.m. 29. Clear, fine a.M.: cloudy, fine p.m. 30. Cloudy

a.M.: fog p.m. 31. Fog a.m. and P.M,

Mean temperature of July for twenty-seven previous years . 55°08

Mena temperatine Ol LOIS MONUN concn -iccovscencecisssearecocsccee 55°25

Mean temperature Of duly US8530 2. sos. cp ccqsadcccsecessecercvees 58 15

Average quantity of rain in July for fourteen previous years. 2°40 inches.

* Dr. Grube states that he is unable to determine to which of these spe-

cies his specimens belong, but gives a detailed description of them, with

some critical remarks on the descriptions of other authors.

+ Troschel and Ruthe, ‘ Handb. der Zoologie.’

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THE ANNAES

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 82. OCTOBER 1854.

XXIII.—On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the

Structure of the Oryans of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals.

By Tuomas Witiiams, M.D. Lond., Licentiate of the Royal

College of Physicians, formerly Demonstrator on Structural

Anatomy at Guy’s Hospital, and now of Swansea.

{With three Plates. |

[Continued from p. 57.]

Structure of the Branchie in the Lamellibranchiate Mollusks.

Tue mist upon this branch of natural history which has survived

the brightening science of a bright century may indeed refuse

to be dissipated even by the achromatic microscope—the potent

wand of the modern observer. That which the calm eye dis-

cerns with clearness, and the understanding interprets with

confidence, though amplified many hundred diameters, is as

likely to be an immutable objective truth as any “ instance ”

within the sphere of the unassisted vision. Faith in the

verity of microscopic facts is a fundamental article in the

scientific creed of every living philosopher. The sphere of the

naked vision is exhausted: another is opened by the micro-

scope. Minute deseriptions of subtle and complex structures,

rendered possible only through its mstrumentality, will prove of

as great service in the hands of the future lawgivers of science,

as the grosser narratives of the fathers of anatomy have already

proved in the founding of the temple in which the high priests

of natural theology now chant her service.

The branchial structures of the Mollusca have never yet been

unravelled. The problem, though not impracticable, still awaits

solution. The system of the gills is a conspicuous element in

the molluscan organism. In apparent size they are considerable.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 16

242 Dr. T, Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

If function were expressed in numeric amount by the dimensions

of the organs, the physiologist would assign to this class of ani-

mals a high degree of respiration.. Minute structure is a factor

in the estimate. The gills of the Lamellibranchiate mollusk are

singularly and peculiarly formed: they admit of comparison

in structural characters with no other organ found amongst

Invertebrate animals. The meaning of a part is an inference of

the intellect. When exact, it is founded upon a correct appre-

ciation of structure. A ‘law’ is upraised upon the basis of par-

ticulars. Let the following difficult inquiry be conducted in rigid

compliance with this regulus philosophandi. Though abundant,

the elder literature upon this subject has bequeathed little that

is accurate and true. Baer* alludes im a special manner to the

pectinated character of the branchiz in the Lamellibranchiata ;

he illustrates his description by the gills of Mytilus. Meckel +

depicts and describes in general terms a comb-like structure im

the gills of Spondylus, Pecten, and Arca. Cuvier’s figures and

descriptions { delineate the same formation. In his valuable

notes, Siebold § describes the branchiz in Pectunculus, Mytilus,

Arca, Pecten, Avicula, and Lithodomus as consisting of a system

of parallel vessels. In the text of his work, however, Siebold,

like Mr. Hancock, speaks of the trellis-like network of the

branchial structures. Among the older authors by whom allu-

sion is made to the pectinated arrangement of the branchial

vessels, the names of Bojanus, Treviranus, and Poli may be enu-

merated.

The contributions of Mr. Hancock upon this subject are the

most recent, special, and distinguished ||. By this observer three

types of structure are recognized. They are thus defined in his

own language :—“ There appear to be ¢hree distinct modifications

of gill-structure m the Lamellibranchiata. In the first the

lamine forming the gill-plate are composed of filaments either

free or only slightly united at distant intervals, as in Anomia

and Mytilus ; in the second they are formed by a simple vascular

network, asin Mya, Pholas, &c.; and in the third the lamine of

the gill-plate are complicated by the addition of transverse plice

composed of minute reticulations of vessels, as in Chamostrea,

Myochama, Cochlodesma, &c. Other modifications may exist,

* Meckel, Arch. 1830, p. 340.

+ Syst. der Vergleich. Anat. vi. p. 60.

{ Regne Animal, nouvelle edit., Mollusques, pl. 74. fig. 2 a.

§ Anatomy of the Invertebrata, translated by Burnett, p. 211.

|| The excellent papers of Messrs. Alder and Hancock, to which repeated

reference is made in the text, will be found tin various Numbers of the

‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for the years 1852 and 1853.

To the attentive perusal of these valuable essays the student of the subject

is earnestly advised.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 243

but these are all that have come under my observation *.” In

each of these “ modifications”? one common character is said to

prevail—the vessels reticulate—in the first only “ shghtly,” in

the others more “ minutely.” Such is the structural law of the

branchiz of the Lameliibranchiates as expounded by Mr. Han-

cock. It is at direct variance with the prevalent and accepted

definition. Dr. Sharpey says—“ Each gill (of Mytilus) or leaf

consists of two layers, which are made up of vessels set very close

to one another like the teeth of a comb or like parallel bars,

&e.¢” “These bars are connected laterally with the adjacent

ones of the same layer at short intervals by round projections on

their sides,” &e.{

Here this accurate observer conspicuously indicates the differ-

ence between the solid projections interposed between the vas-

cular bands, tying them together into a horizontal lamina, and

the “transverse plice” of Mr. Hancock, which transform a

matchless system of parallel bars into one of “ mimute reticula-

tion” (Hancock), which neither the eye nor the understanding can

unravel. M. Deshayes§ stands in this anomalous position :—

he has figured accurately what he has interpreted wrongly. Albeit

to this author merit is due. He has pointed out clearly by the

pencil—what really exists in nature ; what he himself misunder-

stood ; what neither Dr. Sharpey nor Mr. Hancock seem at any

time to have recognized—a structure without which the gill of

the Lamellibranch could not architecturally be what it is; a mar-

vellously woven fabric, refined in the utmost degree in its me-

chanism, adapted with incomparable skill to the purpose in view

—a structure which no observer either anterior or posterior to

the time of M. Deshayes has even suspected to exist—that ap-

paratus of transverse scaffolding (Pl. VI. fig. 1 ¢, c, d) situated

between the lamelle of the gill, crossing at right angles the axes

of the interlamellar water-tubes, j, 7 (of the existence of which

M. Deshayes had not the shghtest knowledge), and doubtfully

described by him as the true blood-channels of the branchiz !

M. Deshayes mistook the lamine formed by the real branchial

vessels for “membranous layers or laminz, within the substance

of which the branchial vessels are arranged with great regularity.”

His eye caught with correctness nearly all the parts of this

exquisite apparatus; his reasoning then enveloped them in

* Annals and Magazine of Natural History for April 1853.

+ Art. “ Cilia,” Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.

+ This concise description is rendered still clearer by the original figures

which accompany the famed article of Dr. Sharpey, to which IT have ad-

verted in the text.

§ See art. “ Conchifera,’’ Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys. se

244. Dr. T. Wilhams on the Mechanisin of Aquatic

confusion*. Nothing less than a rediscovery of these skeletal

parts, by which the branchial vessels are maintained in sifu and

the whole tubular system preserved in shape, could suffice to

render complete and consistent the demonstration of the anatomy

of the Lamellibranchiate gills.

With the eye stedfastly fixed on these parts, it is surprising

that M. Deshayes could see in them no meaning, could read in

them no purpose. In defining the outline and office of the inter-

lamellar water-tubes, it is matter of wonder that Mr. Hancock

did not suspect the mechanical necessity for a supporting appa-

ratus such as this, without which the water-tubes could not sus-

tain their patency or their form. Such is the history of progress

in all the manifold paths of scientifie observation. Discovery

must literally be prefigured in the intellect of the thinking ob-

server. In the absence of the foreshadowing conception, wondrous

things in nature rendered manifest by accident are vacantly

gazed at, left unfathomed, and then forgotten, or mentioned

only as incidents or episodes in the drama. The merit which

belongs to rediscovery is too often withheld from its author. It

is morally, in equity, not less worthy of honour than the first

discovery.

The law was formerly stated that the blood-channels in the

gills of the Lamellibranchiate mollusks occur always in every

species in form of straight, parallel, independent, non-commu-

nicating tubes, supported on the two opposite sides by hyaline

cartilages, generally membraniform and semicylindrically curved

(Pl. VL. figs. 6 & 6*; and Pl. VII. fig. 15). These blood-

channels never reticulate. At the free border of the eill the

afferent channel returns into the efferent in a looping manner

(Pl. VI. fig. 1 e, f). The efferent lke the afferent channel

preserves its individuality from one border of the lamella to the

other (m, e). The blood-current, therefore, preserves unmixedly

its singularity and independence from the beginning to the end

of its branchial orbit (Pl. VIII. figs. 23 & 24). This is a striking

and yvemarkable characteristic. It is a molluscan peculiarity.

Its prevalence in this class is universal. It stands in contrast

with the crustacean. The network plan is here the type. In

some species of Annelids the branchial vessels observe a straight,

parallel, looping mode of division. In the Annelid the blood

is coloured and non-corpusewar. In the mollusk it is replete

with globules. The blood-globules travel through the branchial

‘bars’ in a single series, or two abreast. In the crustacean

the blood-channels are imparietal sinuses. In the mollusk each —

* The reader is requested to refer to fig. 352, article “‘ Conchifera,”’ in the

first volume of the ‘ Cyclopzdia of Anatomy and Physiology.’

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 245

vessel is elaborately carved and wonderfully protected (PI. YI.

figs. 6 & 6). The difference is as essential m kind as it is con-

spicuous : it may serve hereafter to establish the true direction of

equivocal affinities. Subtle analogies, like deeply hidden differ-

ences concealed amid the profoundest recesses of the organism,

are often more conclusive in disputative questions of specific

and generic relationships, than diversities or resemblances graven

prominently in the manner of the outward form.

In now entering upon the narrative of the minute structure of

the gills in the conchiferous mollusks, it must be premised that

illustrative types only can be comprehended in the story. Spe-

cific varieties and modifications must be left to the specific in-

quiries of individual observers. There prevails, however, such a

remarkable uniformity in the architectural principle on which

the breathing organs in all LamelJibranchiate mollusks are con-

structed, that departures from the central plan never involve a

change of type. Such variations are apparent, not radical.

Though a concise description, aided by illustrations, may enable

the author to convey a readily intelligible statement of these

parts, the reader must not infer that his task has been easy or

his labour light. He has traversed dark and tangled contro-

versies. For long he could pilot his course by the magnetism

of no clearly-defined principle. Evidence cenflicted, assertions

bewildered ; the subject was intricate, the clue of principle was

wanting. He would fain trust that the history which he is

about to write will transform a pre-existing chaos into the

cultivated scene of exact demonstration.

The minute structure of the gills in the Conchifera may be

conveniently described under the heads severally of the consti-

tuent parts of which they are formed.

1. The-parallel bars or vessels forming the lamellee.

2. The borders of the lamelle, () attached, (0) free.

3. The transverse connective parts—intervascular, or inter-

vectal.

4. The interlamellar water-tubes and the intra-tubular frame-

work of support.

5. The ciliary system of the gills.

1. In the Acephalous mollusk the branchial vessel is sculp-

tured upon one essential plan. All deviations from this plan are

inessential varieties. So singularly do these blood-canals differ

from ordinary blood-vessels, that they will be henceforth de-

scribed under the name of “branchial bars.’ The word ‘ bar ’

implies, first, straightness, and secondly, rigidity, two properties

which belong to the branchial bars. The word ‘ bar’ involves

the idea of separateness, individuality and dependence —cha-

racters which apply to the branchial bars. Rigid bars arranged

246 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

in parallel directions on the same horizontal plane would form a

stratum of bars—such is the branchial lamella. Disposed on

two coincident planes, one above the other, two parallel lamelle

would result. Between parallelly-arranged rigid bars the inéer-

spaces would be parallel and equal—such are the intervectal*

water-passages of the branchie. If traversed by cross threads

at frequent intervals, a long fissure would assume the form of

oblong foramina (Pl. VI. fig. 1 g, fig. 2 e). Such sometimes

are the varieties which occur in the intervectal passages. If the

parallel lamelle be tied together at regular points by bands

running with the bars, the space between the lamellae would be

divided into tubes. Thus are formed the interlamellar water-

tubes (figs. 7,9). The picture is faithful to nature. It mirrors

the reality of a complex apparatus. It represents m_ simple

outline the machinery of the branchiz in the bivalve mollusk.

The details are now neither intricate nor unintelligible, be-

cause the constructive idea is clear to the intellect. In all mves-

tigations a tangibly-grasped menéal picture must forerun the

clear perception of the outward reality.

A branchial bar is a tube whose sides are comparatively rigid,

and whose diameter is uniform (PI. VI. fig. 6a,a). It is clothed

externally by a membrane, the coutinuation of the mantle, of

which the epithelium is evolved at certain regular limes mto

cilia-bearing scales (6). The opposed sides of each bar are

formed of, and supported by, cartilages (a, a). If these two

cartilages were far removed apart, the blood-channel would be

broad and flat (Pl. VII. fig. 15 6, 6, 6). These cartilages are

slender in the extreme in texture; they are membraniform and

exquisitely hyaline ; curved at the edges, they assume the figure

of a hollow semicylinder; they possess just enough rigidity to

preserve the straightness of the bar; they are continuous through-

out the whole length of the bar (Pl. VIII. fig. 17). Being

placed on the opposed horizontal sides of the bars (not on

the upper and under aspects), they must necessarily cireumscribe

a tubular channel of unbroken continuity. The sides are not

perforated by openings of any description. If the transverse

structures (Pl. VIII. fig. 22 a), afterwards to be described, be

vessels or blood-channels, as conceived by Mr. Hancock and

some of the elder anatomists, the bore of such channels cannot

communicate with that of the parallel bars. The transverse

parts must therefore, if they be blood-channels at all, constitute

an independent system. But they are not so. They are con-

* From the Latin vectis, a bar. Since it is proposed to distinguish the

branchial blood-channels under the name of bars, it is only consistent to

mark the spaces between them as infervectal, rather than as intervascular,

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 247

nective fibrous structures (Pl. VIII. fig. 19). In almost all

species of bivalve mollusks, the branchial bars more or less

closely approach the cylindrical in figure. To this rule of

structure those of the common Mussel form a remarkable excep-

tion : they are here blade-shaped (figs. 17 & 20). The section

of the bar is frequently oval. In the genera Cardium, Unio,

Ostrea, &c. this form is exemplified. The subcylindrical canal,

circumscribed by the hyaline cartilages just described, is the true

blood-channel*. All naturalists have conjectured this fact ; the

existence is now only for the first time proved. The cartilages

bounding these channels are now first announced. They do not

enclose the whole circumference of the vessel: they form a

third of the opposite halves (Pl. VI. fig. 67). The rows of cilia

correspond with their edges: the intervals between these edges

are membranous. The real osmotic movement of the gases con-

cerned in respiration is limited to these intervals. Along these

intervals, extending with beautiful regularity from one end of

the bar to the other, there travels a cilia-driven current. In

Mytilus the bars appear to swell (P]. VIII. fig. 17 0, 0, 0) at the

points at which they are joined together by the transverse

structures. The real blood-channel does not bulge. The car-

tilages of the bars at the base of the lamella are lost in and

identified with that embracing the trunk common to the whole

series (c, c). Traced carefully to the proximal border, they will

be observed to have this disposition: the cartilages of conti-

guous sides of adjoining bars form one piece, being so bent as to

become continuous at the proximal border of the lamella. The

bars are thus held firmly in situ and in relative connexion.

At this point it becomes extremely interesting to inquire,

whether the /amella is composed of a single series (Pl. VI.

fig. 4), laid side by side, of parallel bars, or of a double series

arranged in two separate planes? (fig. 5). The answer to this

question will implicate an important point of function. It is

difficult to convey clearly the idea of a double series of bars

constituting a single lamella. This undoubtedly is the disposi-

* A very recent study of the minute structure of the gills m the Tunicates

and Ascidians has enabled me to resolve completely the homology of the

branchial bars in the bivalve mollusks, to expla demonstratively why it

is that in the gills of some Acephalans the blood-conduits are placed like

membranous channels between alternate bars (as is shown in PI. VII.

fig. 15, 6, 6, 6), and that in others the blood-canal (as in Pl. VIII. fig. 22)

occupies the axis of each bar. Though there exist in the gills of the

Tunicata a system of large transverse trunks, with which the parallel

ultimate blood-channels (the homologues of the “‘ bars”’ in the Acephala)

openly communicate, in a supplementary note on this subject in the next

paper, it will be shown that the ultimate elements of the branchize in

Tunicata and Acephala are really arranged on the same type.

248 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

tion of the branchial bars in some species of Acephala. Ifa “ bar”

be bent once upon itself (fig. 3), and if then one hmb only be

rested upon a flat surface, the ether limb will be on the same

vertical plane, but on a different horizontal plane. If a second,

then a third bar, and so on, be placed in coincident directions,

the limbs will form two horizontal series or lamine, between

which a free undivided horizontal space will exist (e, f); but there

will also exist vertical spaces between each two adjoining bars

having the same vertical planes. In words this arrangement

is complex, in illustration simple. Now it may at first be sup-

posed that of mechanical necessity this must be the order in

which the bars are arranged in all the examples of double gills*

(Pl. VI. figs. 1 & 7), as it is really that in which the afferent and

efferent limbs of the same looped bar are disposed in all instances,

without exception, of single (Pl. VI. fig. 2) gills. But it is truly

the case only in a very few genera. It is so in the Mytilidee

(Pl. VIII. fig. 24). It follows that under the latter circumstances

the interlamellar water-tubes must be bounded by two concentrie

walls (Pl. VI. fig. 5), each wall being composed of a single hori-

zontal series of bars. Of this disposition another apparent

example is afforded in the Ostreade ; if the disposition of the

loops at the free margin only be considered. In nearly ad/ other

genera, known to the author, the limbs of the same looped bar

are placed on the same horizontal plane (PI. VI. fig. 7 f). The

plane of the loop notwithstanding at the distal border of the

lamella is not horizontal, but vertical. It results that each

lamella is composed of a single series of bars, though the con-

tiguous limbs alternate in function, one conveying a centripetal,

the other a centrifugal current (PI. VII. figs. 9 & 11). But it

must be remembered that a single lamella (a or 5, Pl. VII.

fig. 11) of a double gill is not the exact equivalent of an entire .

single gill (fig. 14). In all single gills the limbs of the same

bar rest on vertical planes ; those of a single lamella of a double

gill are’ placed on the same horizontal plane (fig. 12). In the

single gill the physical conditions are more favourable to the

complete aération of the blood. The water-currents are dif.

ferent, not the same. It will greatly facilitate the comprehension

of the preceding history if now the minute anatomy of the free or

distal borders of the branchial lamelia be carefully and accurately

studied.

The structure of the extreme free edge of the lamella furnishes

a ready key which unlocks at once the whole mystery of the

branchial apparatus; and yet this wondrous part of the organ

* The meaning attached in these papers to the double as opposed to the

single gill is afterwards explained.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 249

has never arrested the curiosity of the anatomist. In Mytilus

and in Mytilus only, Dr. Sharpey figures correctly the manner

im which, at the distal margin of the lamella, the bars of the

upper become continuous with those of the lower lamella. In

Mytilus the structure of the gill is almost unique (PI. VIIL.

fig. 17). The order which obtains in nearly all other genera

could not be deduced from the anatomy of the Mytilidan gill.

It is a singular exception. It is the rare exception only that

Dr. Sharpey has pictured. The rule of structure remained

really to be discovered. If the blunt and acute edges of the

penknife-shaped branchial bar (fig. 20) carry each a blood-

channel, then each gz// in Myitlus will be a double gill, for the

upper and lower are identically formed. If, on the contrary,

the blood-channel exists only at the blunt edge (qa) of the blade,

the current travelling peripherally along the bars of the upper

lamella (A, fig. 17) ama turn round id shown in fig. 24 d, d)

at the free margin through the loop and move centrally along

the bars of the lower lamella (B, fig. 17). In the latter case

tne gill would be single, in the former double. The bars of

the upper lamella sty the gill is single carry currents moving

in the same direction (Pl. VE fig. 2; PL. VII. fig. 14) from one

border of the gill-plate to the other ; those of the lower, oppositely

tending currents (P]. VILI. fig. 23 é, f). This point is the

wonder- strikimg feature of the branchial enginery. No writer

has ever given to it a single thought. It deserves to be further

elucidated. In Pholas (Pl. VI. figs. 1 & 2), Gastrechena, Mya,

Fellina, Mactra, Cyprea, Cardium (Pl. VII. figs. 18 & 14),

Ostrea (Pl. VIII. fig. 21), and probably in many other genera,

the mner gill is double and the outer is single. The Pandoride

and Lucimidee are families in which the outer gill is altogether

suppressed. In Solen, Pecten, Unio, Venus, Kellia, Arca, &e.,

the two gills on both sides are equal in size and double in

structure.

Kvery gilJ-plate, whether single or double, 1s composed of two

lamell, between which the excurrent water-tubes (see large

arrows in Pl. VII. fig. 18, Pl. VI. fig. 1, and figs. 7 & 8) are

situated. In the example of the double gill each lamella is the

scene of a double system of opposed currents of blood, since

the two limbs of the same looped bar lie on the same horizontal

plane in the same lamella (PI. VII. fig. 9c). The adjoining

limbs are thus alternately afferent and efferent, or venous and

arterial. Hach lamella then of every double gill is a complete

and independent gill. Its system of circulation is distinct, and

totally unconnected with that of the other lamella. Neverthe-

less, a single lamella of a double gill is not identical in ana-

tomical characters, or structurally, or perhaps officially, equi-

250 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

valent to an entire single gill. As formerly intimated in the

example of a single gill, the limbs of the same looped bar,

respectively venous and arterial, are placed on different hori-

zontal planes (Pl. VII. fig. 14), the planes of the loops (a) at

the free margin being vertical, and not horizontal as they are in

general in the double gill (Pl. VI. fig. 1; Pl. VII. figs. 9 & 11).

The single gill, like the double, is composed of two lamellar

planes (fig. 14 5, c) bounding intermediate water-tubes. But

in the single gill each lamella is single in function, since it

consists of the afferent or efferent limbs separately and exclu-

sively of the looped bars. In either lamella therefore the

adjacent bars belong to separate and independent loops. The

component bars of the lamellz in all single gills are separated

from one another by intervectal water-fissures (Pl. VII. fig. 15

c,¢e,¢c). In the double gills in which the two limbs of the same

loop le adjomed on the same horizontal plane, such limbs are

united together by a continuous membrane (Pl. VI. fig. 5). In

such case the intervectal water-fissures exist only between the

limbs of different contiguous loops, not between those of the

same looped bar. By this arrangement the volume of water

which traverses the gill at any given time is reduced by exactly

one-half. The functional value of the organ therefore sinks

in the same degree. <A double gill (Pl. VII. figs. 13,9 & 11;

Pl. VI. fig. 1) in structure is not necessarily twofold in physio-

logical import. In official activity it exceeds little the single gill.

In the latter the blood is more intimately brought into contact

with the respiratory medium, and this medium is more readily

and rapidly renewed. To the single gill (Pl. VI. fig. 2; Pl. VIL.

fig. 14) conchologists have applied the term supplementary. It

is difficult to understand in what sense this term should be re-

ceived. In structure the single gillis no¢ supplementary. It is a

perfect and complete organ. No constituent element is deficient

or suppressed. In function it is complete. It is not a super-

numerary organ. Both these designations are significant of

what is untrue. It is as much an integer of the organism as the

upper or inner gill. A daw hitherto undiscovered does, however,

affect the presence and dimensions of the outer or single gill

which does not influence the inner or double gill. If, as in the

Pandoridze, Lucinidz, and some other families, there exist only

one gill, it is invariably the single or out-gill that is wanting.

The principle of suppression or non-development affects exclu-

sively the latter. When only one gill exists, that is, one on

either side of the foot and body, it is always doudle in structure.

It contains the same number of bars and loops as any other

double gill. It is quite erroneous to conceive that m such a

case the absent or suppressed gill has been fused into and iden-

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 25]

tified with the present solitary gill. The latter is the same in

essential structure as if the single gill were present.

In Pholadomya and Anatina, Professor Owen describes the two

branchial lamellee of either side as having been united to form

a single gill*. Valenciennes states that the solitary gill of the

family Lucinide resembles that of Anodonta; it is larger, and

formed of thicker and more prominent pectinations. Lucina Ja-

maicensis, L. tigrina, L. columbella, and L. lactea, are examples in

which only a single branchial organ exists on either side. The

solitary gill differs from the ordinary double gill only in apparent

characters. The free border is composed only of two rows of

loops ; but these loops are soldered together by an obvious longi-

tudinal band or cord, running in shape of a deep water-groove

from one end to the other of the free margin (PI. VI. fig. 8 8).

It is this character which occasions the appearance of doubleness

and fusion. In the solitary gill of the Pandoride and Lucinide,

the pectinations+ of the lamellz are coarse and large to the naked

eye. This circumstance is due to the greater size in these cases of

the interlamellar water-tubes. It is repeated, that the vascular

elements, in the solitary gills, are the same in number and disposi-

tion with those of any other double gill. If, in the example of the

solitary gill, the outer single gill were really organically united

to the inner double gill, an organ should result consisting at the

free border of ¢hree rows of vascular loops, ¢wo distinct systems

of parallel interlamellar water-tubes, four separate lamellee, three

layers of afferent and three of efferent bars! Such, of mechanical

necessity, Should be the anatomical characters of a gill which

owed its formation to the union of one already double to another

struck on the single plan. Such a monstrosity is not illustrated

in nature. It is a fabulous branchia, born of hypothesis. But

it may appear quite reasonable to explain the anomaly of a solitary

gill, on the supposition that it is the natural and necessary pro-

duct of the fusion of two single gills. A glance at the illustra-

tions depictive of the type of the latter, will at once convince the

mechanician that two single gills could not in any manner be

fused in order to make a double gill,—such a double gill, that

is, duplex in mechanism, twofold m function, as actually exists

m the real animal. Let two single gills be brought together

(Pl. VI. figs. 7 & 8),—the water-movement and the ciliary action

would cease at once on the two adjoined, apposed faces. Thus

the power of each would be reduced by one-half. Two singles

united make a single! Such is the clumsiness of human handi-

* Forbes and Hanley, British Mollusca, vol. ii. p. 42.

t It should be distinctly understood, that the word ‘ pectinations’ is not

synonymous with an ultimate branchial bar, but with that se¢ of bars which

form an interlamellar water-tube.

202 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

craft: attempting to mimic nature, it is lost im caricature.

Nature does not reach her ends by the “fusion” of organs.

An existing organ is modified to fulfil a collateral purpose. A

solitary gill has its own peculiar characters. The component

vessels remaining unchanged in number and arrangement, a

solitary organ is rendered equivalent to a double one, by aug-

menting the dimensions of the passages and tubes in such a

manner, that the aérating element brought into relation with

the blood can be increased almost to any amount. Function is

thus intensified, while structure remains analtered.

The loops of the vascular bars, as they project at the free

margin of the lamelle, are differently joined and variously

figured and sculptured in different genera, and frequently in

different species of the same genus. In Pholas (Pl. VI. figs. 1

& 4), the free border of the double or inner gill presents two

rows of loops (e, f). The plane on which the loops of the upper

lamella rest is horizontal, coinciding with the /ength, as opposed

to the breadth, of the gill. Those belonging to the lower lamella

of the same gill, form a row on a plane an eighth of an inch below

the former. Between these two projecting scalloped edges, a

eroove (fig. 3 4) runs from one end of the gill to the other. The

cilia which fringe this groove (Pl. VIII. fig. 24.4; Pl. VIL. fig. 10,

a,b) are very much larger in all species than those which are

distributed over the bars at the plane faces of the gills. They

excite a vigorous current, bearing towards the mouth. Those

of the flat surface (Pl. VIII. fig. 20; Pl. VI. fig. 6 b, 5) raise

streams, tending towards the free border of the gill. Both are

subservient to alimentation and respiration. In Pholas, then, the

double gill (Pl. VI. fig. 1) is composed only of two lamelle, like

the single gill (Pl. VI. fig. 2); but im the former, each lamella

is composed of two orders of bars, in the latter of one order only.

The two limbs (fig. 4b, 6, c, ¢) of each looped bar in the former

are placed on the same side of the intermediate water-tube: the

afferent and efferent limbs of the same bars (fig. 2h, f), im the

instance of the single gill, are so opened or separated at the free

margin as to form respectively the opposite walls of the included

water-tube. The vascular /oops at the margin of the double gill

in nearly all genera are disposed flatwise (Pl. VI. fig. 1 e, f;

Pl. VIII. fig. 21 c,d; Pl. VII. fig. 9 a, 6, fig. 11 a, 6), so that all

the loops of the same lamella form one horizontal plane. Those

of the single gill (Pl. VII. fig. 14a; Pl. VI. fig. 2) are placed

vertically, so that the plane of each loop is separated from,

though parallel with, that of the adjoiming loops. In the double

gills of the Cardiads an exception occurs, and probably in other

families. The loops at the distal margin are disposed here on

vertical planes (Pl. VII. fig. 14a); but though standing verti-

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 253

cally, they do not enclose two systems of interlamellar water-

tubes, but only one. The mechanical problem presented by the

gills of Cardium proved extremely difficult of solution. /Vhen

understood, it challenged any living mechanism for beauty and

perfection. In Mytilus the loops of the two lamellze are soldered

into union at the free borders: they stand vertically (Pl. VIII.

figs. 17 & 24): they cireumscribe a deep intermediate gutter. In

Solen (Pl. VIII. fig. 23) the loops expand. In Venus they also

somewhat exceed in diameter that of the bars, of which they are

the bend. In Mytilus, the inner and outer gills exhibit the same

formation. In the Ostreade (PI. VIII. fig. 21), the loops at the

margins of the gills are so closely packed together horizontally,

as to appear like a continuous membrane bounding an angular

groove. Numerous other varieties in the mere shape and size of

the loops occur in different families of Bivalves—the type of

structure never changes.

The proximal or attached border (P1. VI. figs. 1 & 2 a, b) of the

gills occurs under many varieties of anatomical plan. Pholas

exemplifies one type. The two lamellee* are attached to the pallial

tunic. All the vascular bars terminate in a common trunk

(Pl. VI. fig. 2a, 6) which runs at right angles to their axes, and

paraliel with the length of the entire gill. There are two of

these trunks, one afferent, the other efferent. They occupy re-

spectively the proximal margins (Pl. VI. fig. 1 a, 6) of the two

lamellee of which each gill is composed. In Pholas these trunks

are supported by the framework of solid structure (¢ ¢ and d d)

which occupies the interlamellar spaces. In So/en (Pl. VIII.

fig. 23 a) and Mytilus (fig. 17 A) another plan of formation is

observed. Here the proximal border of the superior lamella of the

upper gill, and inferior lamella of the under gill, are unattached,

floating in the mantual cavity. In such instances the inter-

lamellar framework is wanting. The vascular bars at this border,

for some distance up the breadth of the gill, are tied together

by means of a continuous membrane (e, e). Here the interlamellar

scaffolding, and the water-tubes which the former assist to form,

exist only where the two lamellee are adherent ; viz. over the two-

thirds of the breadth of the gill nearest the free border.

* It should be clearly explained that the word lameila, as applied to

the gill of the Acephalan Mollusk, should signify, one of the two plates of

which the gill, whether double or single, is composed. The gill is the whole

organ. In those instances in which (as shown in fig. 5, Pl. VI.) the bars

stand vertically on the same lamella, then of course each lamella would

be composed of two plates, or finer lamelize. Iam not quite certain that

such an arrangement exists in nature. In several genera—in Cardium espe-

cially—when care is taken to avoid pressure upon the margin, such is

the true position of the loops, if not of the bars proceeding backwards

from them.

254: Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

Intervectal and Interlamellar Framework of Connective

Structures.

These structures constitute the true skeleton by which is

sustained the vascular fabric of the gill. Of the latter, they

determine the shape and the form. They preserve the blood-

carrying bars in position. They hold apart the component

lamellee of the gills. They thus form the interlamellar tubes, smce

without these structures the lamellz would fall together into

contact and obliterate the tubes. Messrs. Alder and Hancock

recognized the tubes, but overlooked the framework system by

which they were constructed*. M. Deshayes has figured this

framework (Pl. VI. fig. 1 ¢, c,¢ & d, fig. 27, and fig. 8 d, d) ap-

paratus in a conchiferous (Pecten or Arca?) mollusk. Not a

sentence is written descriptive of its characters, or interpretative

of its meaning +. Attention was drawn to it by no allusion

whatever, direct or incidental. Philippit has this observation

with respect to the branchiz of Solenomya, which probably

refers to the interlamellar structures in question :—“ Branchiz

duo non quatuor, non lamelliformes, sed pectinate vel potius

pennam exacte referentes, lamellis transversis perpendicularibus,

carina media corpori per totam longitudinem adnate, versus

apicem ope ligamenti.” _Ill-defined reference to the same parts

is made by Carus, Blainville, Garner, and others. To be

known descriptively, and comprehended physiologically, they re-

mained really to be rediscovered,—to be read by a new eye, from

* Tt is very probable, from the following passage, that Messrs. Alder

and Hancock have mistaken the thick solid cords which at short tervals

cross the tubes, for real blood-channels: “‘ The laminz forming the walls

of these tubes were now examined through the microscope, when the whole

was observed to present a regularly reticulated structure composed of

blood-vessels ; those passing transversely being the stronger and more pro-

minent.”—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, paper on Currents

in Pholas and Mya,” 1852.

+ The following is the only passage which occurs in the excellent

article (Conchifera, Cyclop. Anat. Phys.) of M. Deshayes having reference

to the structure of the gills:—‘In the greater number of genera, the

branchiz are formed of two membranous layers or lamine (a, 8, fig. 352),

within the substance of which the branchial vessels descend with great

regularity. In several genera, as the Archide and Pecten, the branchial

vessels, instead of being connected parallel to one another within the

thickness of a common membrane, continue unconnected their entire length,

and they are thus formed of a great number of extremely delicate filaments,

attached by the base within the membranous pedicle on which the bran-

chial veins pursue their way towards the auricle.” Nothing is said of the

distinct and independent structures which separate the lammz. The con-

dition, namely the separation of the lamimae—upon which depends the

existence of the interlamellar water-tubes—is here accidentally stated ; but

neither the existence nor the meaning of such parts seem in the slightest

degree to have been imagined by M. Deshayes.

£ Moll. Sicil..1. p. 16.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 255

anew puint of view. The author believes that the following is

the first systematic exposition on record of the anatomy and signi-

ficance of the non-vascular elements of the lamellibranchiate gill.

They are classifiable under two heads. Those parts which

are placed between (PI. VI. fig. 1 g, fig. 2e, fig. 8d; Pl. VIII.

fig. 19 c, c, c) the parallel bars (the intervectal), uniting them into

the form of a leaf, constitute a separate order. Those, secondly,

stronger, coarser, in some genera very conspicuous, im others

very concealed, which separate the lamell, forming and bound-

ing the excurrent interlamellar water-tubes, to which m many

species the ova adhere, the basis of the whole gill, the wonder

of the whole enginery, the last of the branchial constituents to

be described and understood, are really a distinct and unknown

class of structures.

The first class vary the apparent anatomy of the gill more

than the second. They cut the fissural spaces (Pl. VI. fig. 7 d)

between the individual bars, or individual loops, into oval stig-

mata (fig. 5 d), elliptical perforations, or lengthened parallelo-

grams (Pl. VII. fig. 12d). In the absence of them, as m

Thracia (Pl. VII. fig. 15), the imtervectal water-fissures are

continuous from the free margin of the gill to the proximal. In

Mytilus (Pl. VIII. fig. 17 0, 0, 0) they appear under the charac-

ter of fleshy nodules; in Cardium (Pl. VII. fig. 12 ¢, ¢, e)

they are almost invisible; in the Veneride they consist of a

flattened bundle of slender threads, running from bar to bar at

equal intervals; in Pholas they assume almost a membranous

form (PI. VI. fig. 4e), perforated at regular distances by oval holes;

they exist only between alternate loops. Ina physiological sense,

the highest value attaches to these intervectal parts. They de-

termine the dimensions of the water-stigmata. If they are

small, the water of respiration is very much subdivided ; if large,

the lamella is readily traversed by the aérating element. In

calculating the quantum of respiration in the Conchifera, two

factors demand to be estimated: first, the amount of blood

entering the breathing organ; secondly, the volume of water

by which, in a given time, it is capable of being traversed. The

latter will depend upon the dimensions of the water-passages.

The intervectal connective structures have been mistaken for

half a century by the best observers for vessels, blood-canals

crossing the bars,—deceiving the observers into the idea that

each lamella in the lamellibranchiate gill is really composed of

a network of blood-vessels. This idea as regards the Acephala in-

volves a fundamental error ; it envelopes everything in unresolv-

able confusion. The orbit of the branchial circulation cannot be

explained. It contradicts the anatomical arrangement conspicuous

in other parts. A consistent sentiment cannot be shaped of this

256 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

most perfect mechanism. They are not blood-channels. They are

elastic, fibrous structures, enacting a purely ligamentous part.

They derive their supply of blood from that of the branchial

bars. Their office is mechanical, not chemical.

The intra-tubular structures (Pl. VI. fig. 1 k, k, k, fig. 8 d, d;

Pl. VIII. fig. 21 f, &e.) are neither less remarkable nor less im-

portant. Upon this interlamellar framework depend the whole

characters of the gill. They hold the lamella apart at definite

distances. They unite closely together the loops of these lamellae

at the free margin (PI. VI. fig. 7 a, b); thus they close up cecally

the tubes at this border of the gill *. This single point of structure

is the pivot whereon turns the action of the gill. If the tubes

at. this extremity were open (as suppositionally at Pl. VIL.

figs. 9 & 11), it is hydraulically certain that the water would

take this course to pass from the extra- to the intra-branchial

cavity ; none would pass between the bars which contain the

blood ; the function of respiration could not proceed ; and this

calamity, further, would ensue—no food could be carried to the

mouth. Men do not value health until it is lost! Spectators

see not, feel not, the perfection, the unimprovableness of organic

mechanism until an element is ideally removed— until some devi-

ation from nature’s method of working is supposed! The argu-

mentum ad absurdum startles by the bungle and foolery which it

is sure to introduce; ¢hen philosophers realize the mimitableness

of her certainty and refinement.

As the proximal borders of the lamelle (Pl. VI. fig. 1 a, 6) are

separated by the whole diameter of the water-tubes, and as the

distal margins are fused together, it follows that these tubes, like

rivers, are small and shallow at their commencement, deep and

broad at their termination. This arrangement favours their

suctorial action. The water, as first explamed by Mr. Hancock,

is undoubtedly drawn into (properly pushed into) these tubes -

through the lamellar stigmata (Pi. VUI. fig. 17 f, ff) from the

pallial cavity. The water is discharged from the tubes by ciliary

agency, which is constant (arrows in Pl. VII. figs. 9, 11, 13 &

14). They are thus constantly being emptied. If they were not

refilled from without, they would become vacuous. During the

action of the gill, there is momentarily generated a tendency to

a vacuum. The pressure that is on the tubular side of the

* In the accompanying illustrations, in several instances (Pl. VII. fig. 9

& 11, Pl. VIII. fig. 21), these tubes are represented as if they were open at

this margin of the gill. This method of illustration was adopted only for

the sake of clearness, and in order that the disposition of the loops and

bars of each lamella may be readily understood. In all cases, without a

single exception, the tubes are closed at this border of the gill by the appo-

sition of the loops of the two constituent lamelle.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 257

lamella is diminished; on the other it remains the same as

long as the animal continues in the water. It is hydraulically

inevitable, even without the assisting agency of cilia, that the

water must transude the lamella by way of its intervectal fissures

and perforations. This mechanism could neither be conceived

nor explained before the nature and office of the interlamellar

framework were brought under clear demonstration. It is im-

portant to understand, that that surface of the lamelle which

faces the intermediate tubes, namely the znéernal walls (Pl. VI.

fig. 8 e) of the water-tubes themselves, is far less richly ciliated

than the external surface. The excurrent movement of the respira-

tory water is much aided by the action of the connective structures

of the bars and tubes. The intervectal pieces—those which pass

crosswise from bar to bar by approximating the latter—are

capable of stopping up the intervectal stigmata,—of suspending,

therefore, the act of respiration. Thus is prevented the passage

of irritating substances through the branchial lamella. The

alternate movements of the shutting and opening of the bars is

as important to the sieving operation of the gill, its prehensile

function, as the cilia themselves. The transverse intervectal

pieces (Pl. VII. fig. 12 ¢,¢,¢; Pl. VIII. fig. 19, ¢, c) consist of

irritable and contractile tissue. They are capable, in part, of

voluntary contraction. ‘Thus, although the chemical act of

breathing is in itself uncontrollable, it may be mterrupted by

the exercise of those connected parts which are subject to the

will.

The skeleton of solid pieces (Pl. VI. fig. 8 d, d, fig. 1 ¢, d,

fig. 2 7,7, &c.) by which the tubes and the lamelle are supported

and held apart, exists probably in the branchiz of every lamelli-

branchiate mollusk. It constitutes a framework system, though

anatomically distinct from, having a mechanical action concurrent

with, the intervectal. At the free border this interlamellar sub-

stance is thin, slender, and difficultly detected by the eye, admit-

ting of the falling together of the lamelle and of the closing of

the tubes. At the opposite attached border, the interlamellar

substance is much thicker, coarser, and more conspicuous

(Pl. VI. fig. 1 k, k, k) ; the parts being quite apparent through

the lamelle. Here, therefore, the lamelle are further separated,

and the tubes of the greatest diameter. This framework consists

of two distinct pieces,—those, first, which run parallel with the

vascular bars (Pl. VI. fig. lc, fig. 272) ; and, secondly, those

which transversely connect these longitudinal pieces (fig. 1 d,

fig. 27,7). The former limit the breadth of the imterlamellar

water-tubes. The tubes are capacious when the lamelle

are far apart, small when they are near each other. As the

exterior appearance of ‘ pectmations” in the gill is due to

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 1 We

258 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

the presence of these tubes, the pectinations are obvious, as in

Cardium, Solen, Pecten, Thracia, &c., when the tubes are large,

invisible to the naked eye when they are small. The cross

pieces tie together the longitudinal at regular intervals. The

latter run with the tubes, and divide them from one another, the

former cross them. If the transverse pieces were so thick and

large as to fill up the tube, and interrupt its continuity, the ex-

currents of water of course would be arrested, and the function of

the gill would be suspended. It is far otherwise. They traverse

the tubes in form of cords. Their extremities are attached to the

opposed pomts on the horizontal sides,—to those very lines

along the sides of the tubes at which the ‘chemical act of breath-

ing is passive. From this arrangement there flows this most

beautiful result: the water, having permeated the lamella and

gained the interior of the tubes, in its course towards the ex-

current siphon, 2s made to keep continually in contact with the

branchial bars. By this simple arrangement, the ¢wo sides, in

fact the four sides, of each individual blood-carrying bar are

persistently embraced by a moving current of the respiratory

element! If the cross cords did not exist, every drop of water

which entered the tube would collect at the most depending side,

and flow out as a useless and unused stream. In the ceconomics

of nature, the subtlest ceconomist may well marvel at her care !

The long pieces of this interlamellar framework are capable

of shortening the length of the water-tubes, the cross pieces of

diminishing their diameters. These actions impel, interrupt,

facilitate, &c. the breath-giving currents. While they com-

plicate the branchial machinery, they double the certainty of the

process ; they provide against accidents; they preserve in the

required position the slender, tender, beautiful parts of which

the apparatus 1s composed.

Endless diversities occur, in different species and genera, in

the size, the figure, the visibleness, &c. of this interlamellar

framework. In no single instance is there observable the

slightest departure in principle of structure, in intention, m

purpose, from the typal plan unfolded in the preceding de-

scription.

The cilia-bearing epithelium (P). VI. fig. 6 6) of the branchial

lamellze in the conchiferous bivalves is well known. It has been

well described by trustworthy observers, from Leeuwenhoek to

Quekett. The cilia in all cases are distributed in rows on the

bars (PJ. VII. fig. 15; Pl. VIII. figs. 20 & 22). There are two

rows on each external hemi- cylinder of each bar. On the external

aspect of each bar, therefore, there are four lines of cilia (Pl. VII.

fig. 10 b, a). They drive two currents in intersecting directions.

On the interna aspect of each bar, that namely which faces the

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 259

interlamellar water-tubes, these rows of cilia are single on the

opposite sides. The excurrent streams are consequently driven by

a power which is one-half m amount of that by which the water

is propelled through the lamelle into the tubes. No cilia are

detectable on the supporting framework between the lamellz. The

current raised by the cilia which are distributed on the external

surface of the lamellee tends in the direction of the free border ;

that excited by the internally-placed cilia bears towards the

proximal border, coinciding with the outlet of the interlamellar

tubes. Itis a true ciliary current; but it is reinforced, quick-

ened from time to time, by the contractile, voluntary action of

the musculo-fibrous parts which constitute the intervectal and

interlamellar framework. The cilia which fringe the free border

of the gill propel the water in the direction of the mouth, at

right angles, consequently, with that raised by those covering

the flat surfaces of the gill. It is an alimentary, not a respira-

tory current. It is powerful enough to bear on its waves pellets

of food for the mouth. The true aérating currents travel along

the naked lines between the rows of cilia. These are the

ultimate scene of the respiratory process.

Thus ends an imperfect sketch. It is but a rude outline of

a beautiful picture. Much is left to the industry of observers

coming after the author. Magnetic thoughts, mdicating the

pole of truth, have been but hastily projected. May they

stimulate others to a truth-admiring repetition of his labours !

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI. VII. ann VIII.

PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. Complete view of the double gill of Pholas candida. The attached

border is held upwards as it were. a, 6, are the large afferent

and efferent trunks (of which there is a set in the border of each

lamella) communicating with the parallel vessels, as shown at (7)

and (h); ¢, ec, c, mark the longitudinal pieces of the intra-tubular

framework of solid structures; k, k, k, show the mode in which

these longitudinal pieces form and bound the interlamellar water-

tubes (j,7, 7); d, d, d, ave the transverse pieces of the framework

on which the lamellze (m, c) of parallel vessels rest, and by which

the latter are held apart, and which cross at right angles the axes

of the interlamellar water-tubes; e, f, denote the two series of

loops of which the free border of this double gill is composed ;

they lie on two distinct planes one above the other; they are

shown as if they were few in number and far between; they exist

im nature in innumerable multitudes and packed with dense close-

ness. mm, 2, represent the course of the bars in the upper lamella ;

e, t, that of the lower. The arrows at the base of the gill emerge

out of the interlamellar water-passages. g, intervascular fibrous

connecting pieces.

Fig. 2. Is aview of asmall portion of theentire single or supplementary (sic)

gill in Pholas candida. a, b, afferent and efferent trunks giving and

17*

260 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

receiving the blood of two separate lamelle, not that of the same

lamella as in the case of the double gill; h, h, bars of the upper

lamella; f, those of the lower; e, connecting fibrous threads

tying together the bars; d, the bars of the lower lamella, 7, 7;

c, c, the interlamellar framework as explained in the double gill.

g & f, show the single row of loops of which the free margin of

this single gill is composed: but here the plane of each loop is

placed vertically, not horizontally as in the double gill.

Fig. 3. A diagram representing the arrangement of the loops, a, a, ¢, d, at

the free margin of the gill in some species; 0, is the water-chan-

nel conveying a current towards the mouth. The loops are placed

on vertical planes. Each lamella in this case is composed of

afferent or efferent vessels exclusively.

‘ig. 4. Two loops from the free margin of the double gill of Pholas, show-

ing the mode in which the continuous membrane, a, a, which in

some bivalves, if not m Pholas, really forms the blood-channel.

In such eases the bars, 0, 6, c, ce, would be solid. The water-

stigmata (intervectal orifices), d, are in such instances present only

between alternate pairs of bars. ‘

Fig. 5. Plan representing the manner in which the bars, a & b, of two se-

parate lamelle placed on the same vertical planes, but different

horizontal planes, are tied together by vertical partitional perfo-

rated membranes (e); d, shows the water-orifices in that con-

necting structure (e) which unites the bars of the same lamella

horizontally.

Fig. 6—6*. Minute anatomy of the branchial bars in those cases in which

the hyaline cartilages, a, a, are so closely approached as to form

the boundary of the channel (c); 0, 6, pieces of the cilia-bearing

epithelium stripped off.

Fig. 7. View of a piece of the entire gill of Thracia convexa. The free,

distal margin is turned upwards. a, 6, the double rows of verti-

cally disposed loops of which this margin is made up; g, the con-

traction which occurs between the interlamellar water-tubes (e) ;

Ff; one of the transverse pieces of the interlamellar framework

in view, crossing the water-tube, indicated by the arrow.

Fig. 8. The same cut horizontally along the length of the bars. The free

edge (0, c) of the upper lamella is left. d, d, show the mode in

which the transverse pieces of the intra-tubular framework lie

between the lamelle, a, b, which constitute the walls of those

tubes ; e, e, arrows denoting the direction of the water-currents

in the tubes.

Puate VII.

Fig. 9. Asmall piece of the free edge of the double gill of Venus striatula.

a, b, loops of the bars of the two component lamellz lying hori-

zontally ; the loops lobed (fig. 10) as they are in Mytilus. ce, the

afferent and efferent bars of a single loop. The arrow descends

from the interlamellar water-tubes.

Fig. 10. One of the loops from fig. 9, enlarged, representing the lines and

disposition of the vibratile cilia, a, 5: c, is a fleshy nodule tying

the loop to its neighbour.

‘ig. 11. The free margin of the gill of a minute freshwater bivalve. It is

produced with a view to illustrate the continuous membrane which

im some cases ties the branchial bars together at the free border of

the gill. a, b, the loops of the two lamellz are shown as if they

were separated by the intervening tube (ce), but in nature the

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 261

lamelle are fused together at the free border, and the mtermediate

tubes are cxcal.

Fig. 12. A few looped bars from the preceding, magnified, showing the de-

licate transverse threads, c,c, c, which cross the branchial bars at

distant intervals. They lie on the inside or tubular aspect of the

lamellae, and sometimes supersede the intra-tubular framework.

The open spaces (d) between these cross threads are the “ inter-

vectal” water-orifices. a, b, are either vascular bars, or two rigid

sides bounding an intermediate membranous channel, which then

is the blood-channel.

Fig. 13. A small portion from the distal edge of the double or upper gill

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

of Cardium. a,b, the upper and lower loops of which this border

is composed. The planes of the loops have a vertical position in

relation, that is, to the plane of the whole gill. c¢, the fleshy

or membranous structure which unites the loops. It belongs

probably to the intra-tubular apparatus, d, d. . Although in this

double gill, as in a// double acephalan gills, the free edge is double,

the interlamellar water-tubes f, and arrows g, are single. The

double row of loops runs ito one at a little distance from the

margin, in order to form one system of tubes. This union of the

bars is shown at7z and e. h, indicates the fleshy structures,—a part

of the imtra-tubular cross bars by which the lobes or “ pectina-

tions ” of the gill are held together.

A portion of the free margin of the inferior or single gill of Car-

dium. This figure exhibits perfectly the manner in which the

limbs (6)—(which, arranged in a linear series, form the upper wall

of the tube (d), or the upper Jamelia of the gill)—of the same

system of loops pass, by looping vertically, as shown at a, into

those of the lower wall of the tubes, or, which is the same thing,

into the lower /amella of the gill.

Shows the alternate mode by which the membranous _ blood-

channels (0, 6, b) are formed by the solid bars (a, a, a, a) of con-

tiguous, but distinct loops. In such a case, which is the normal

type in the branchiz of all Tunicata, the cilia are disposed m

lines only on that side of each bar which is nearest to the water-

fissures (c). These fissures, in such examples, are not crossed by

transverse connecting threads.

Represents one of the lobes, or tubular pectinations, from the

single gill of Cardium, cut longitudinally, illustrating the mode

in which the water-tubes are formed.

Puate VIII.

The “bars” from the gill of Mytilus, followed throughout the

whole of their minute anatomy. 4a, 0, are the afferent and efferent

blood-trunks, running along the attached margin of the upper

lamella A. This border of the gill in Mytidus is represented as

includmg two trunks, on the theory, as yet not quite proved,

that the two edges, c and c, would then be the begmning of the

blood-channel along the blunt edge, and a, a, a, would mark the

termination of that, travelling along the acute margin of the same

penknife-shaped process. J, j, are the corresponding trunks at

the proximal border of the inferior lamella; e, e, mark the con-

tinuous membrane by which, in this gill, the bars are tied together

at the proximal border, so that no water can pass between the bars ;

SIS, Ff, f, ave open orifices between the fleshy nodules, 9, 0, 0, 0,

by which the aérating water enters from without into the inter-

262

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

Fig.

Fig. 2

Fig.

20.

21.

2a;

24.

On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration.

lamellar water-tubes ; g, 7, q, are the superior lobes of the sing/c

loop, of which the free margin of the gill in Mytilus is composed ;

p, is the lower lobe. The deep groove between these lobes is

the great alimentary water-channel, bearimg a current moving in

the direction of the mouth. J, is a fleshy nodule, by which the

loops are united into a series; k, k, k, are horizontal water-

passages ; m, m, fleshy nodules, which connect the contiguous

bars. The system of arrows, g, g, g, indicate the direction of the

great respiratory current, along the upper surface of the lamella ;

2, 1, 1, the lower: both having the same direction—towards the

free margin of the gill.

Is a transverse section of one tube from the gill of Mytilus,

exhibitmg the mode in which the lamine separate, in order to

form a tube (a, 6).

Four bars from the same gill, illustrating further the vertical

parallel planes on which the penknife-shaped bars are placed, and

the mode more exactly in which they are tied together.

A magnified view of a minute portion of a single blade-like bar

from the gill of Mytilus. It illustrates the distribution of the

cilia; and the water-currents, denoted by the arrows, set in

motion by them. a, 6, are intended to show the position of the

blood-channels in the axes of the thickened lines of either edge

of the blade. If the upper lamella in the exceptional gills of

Mytilus should be hereafter proved to carry only a single system

(afferent or efferent) of blood-currents, the channel carrying such

a single current must prove to be a flat passage, whose transverse

section would extend from a to b; e, e, & c, fleshy nodules.

Two longitudinal lobes, or pectinations, from the gill of the

common Oyster. a, c, the double loops of which the free margin

is composed. They are drawn as if separated from each other,

in a tubular form; but, naturally, the two planes of loops lie in

close apposition. At this border in Ostrea, the branchial bars are

soldered together by a continuous membrane over the interval

included in the dotted lines g. f, are the transverse pieces of the

intra-tubular framework. By these transverse pieces, the lamelle

forming the water-tubes are sometimes drawn into quadrilateral

figures, d, e.

. A few of the “bars” from the same gill, showing that each bar is

an independent vessel. The component hyaline cartilages, d, ¢,

are brought close together, so as to form a cylindrical channel, e.

a, b, exhibit the transverse structures, as running along one (the

internal) of the tubes. This arrangement proves that the latter

cannot be transverse vessels.

A portion of the single gill of Venus, drawn as an outline plan.

e, d, f, mark the course of the blood, and the character of the

blood-channel, from the attached margin (a) of the superior

lamella, to the end of its course at the proximal border (4) of the

inferior lamella.

A second plan of the gill of Mytilus, constructed on the supposi-

tion that each lamella carries only a single blood-current, of

which the beginning is shown at d, margin a, and the end at d,

margin 6. The border, h, depicts the order of the vibratile cilia.

[To be continued. |

Mr. J.S. Bowerbank on the Remains of a gigantic Bird. 263

XXIV.—On the Remains of a gigantic Bird (Lithornis Emuinus)

from the London Clay of Sheppey. By J. 8. Bowrrsank,

F.R.S. &c.

Tue first mdication of the former existence of new and often

very large animals is frequently afforded by small and compa-

ratively insignificant fragments, and such is the case in the pre-

sent instance.

Professor Owen has described, in his ‘ Fossil Mammals and

Birds, the remains of more than one spe-

cies of the latter from the London clay,

which specimens are in the collection of the

College of Surgeons, and in those of Mr.

Wetherell and myself; and since that period

I have acquired another specimen, which ap-

pears also to be the remains of Lithornis vul-

turinus ; but none of these birds could have

exceeded in size one of the smaller species of

the Gull tribe. The unassummg specimen

that I now introduce to my readers as a

portion of one of the long bones of a bird,

surpasses in size a full-grown Albatross, a

bird having an expanse of wing of about 12

or 13 feet.

I procured this fragment at Sheppey some

years since, and had really forgotten it until

it was brought to my recollection in conse-

quence of the late Dr. Mantell having obliged

me with the examination of some similar

but somewhat smalier portions of bone of

a Pterodactylus from the Wealden formation

of the Isle of Wight, when the idea arose in

my mind of the possibility of its turning

out to be the remains of a Tertiary Ptero-

dactyl of like dimensions to some of the

larger chalk species ; but on submitting a

fragment of it to microscopical examination,

I at once saw that there was not a trace of

reptilian character in its structure, but that,

on the contrary, the bone-cells and Haversian

canals presented all the well-known pecu-

harities of form and arrangement that cha-

racterize the Bird tribe.

The length of the specimen is 4 inches,

and the greatest diameter of the larger end

is exactly 1 inch. At this part the section of the bone is trian-

264: Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

gular, with the angles rounded off, and having two sides some-

what larger than the third one; the angularity decreases pro-

gressively to the other end of the specimen, and at that portion

but faint traces of it are observable ; at this end of the bone the

greatest diameter rather exceeds 10 lines. The thickest portion

of the walls of the bone, which is at the curves supplying the

place of the angles at the larger end, is 1? line, while the

thinnest portion in the same plane is about the middle of the

shortest side of the triangular section, and does not exceed 3 of

a line.

These structural proportions, in combination with the micro-

scopical characters and the great density of the walls of the bone,

leave no doubt of the character of the animal to which this spe-

cimen has formerly belonged ; and from the marks of muscular

attachment, the form and other peculiarities, my friend Professor

Quekett, who has examined the bone, is of opinion that it has

formed part of the proximal end of a tibia belonging to a bird

little if at all inferior in size to an Emu. On comparing the

fossil with the tibia of an adult Emu, the skeleton of which was

about 6 feet high, I found that the latter was 16 inches in length ;

and on measuring the diameter of the parts of the recent bone

corresponding with those of the fossil one, they appeared to be

as nearly as possible identical ; and the remains of the impression

of the muscular attachment, and of the orifice for the admission

of the blood-vessel into the shaft of the bone, which are situated

in the recent one within the first 6 inches of its length from the

proximal end, are in precisely the same relative position in both

specimens.

There is every appearance therefore, as far as the mutilated

condition of the fossil will allow us to judge, that it has formed

part of an ancient Struthious bird as large as, and probably

closely allied to, the Emu. The section of the bone represented

in the woodcut is taken at the transverse fracture, about one-

third of the length of the specimen from the larger end.

XXV.—Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an

eight years’ residence in the Island. By Epvcar Lrorotp

LayArp, F.Z.S., C.M.E.S. &c.

[Concluded from p. 115.]

257. Numentius arquata, Linn. Coudrey-malley-cotan, Mal.

Whelp, Dutch.

Common along all the flat sea borders in company with

Mr. KE. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 265

258. Numentius Pu#oprvs, Linn.

Neither of these species seem ever to be found in the interior.

259. Toranus Fuscus, Linn.

260. Toranus ocnropus, Linn.

261. Toranus cauipris, Linn.

262. Toranus HyPOLEucos, Linn.

263. Torants eLortis, Linn.

264. Toranus sTaGNaTILis, Bechst.

265. ACTITIS GLAREOLA, Gmel.

266. Trinca MiInuTA, Leis.

267. TRINGA SUBARQUATA, Gmel.

268. TRINGA PLATYRHYNCHA, Gould, B. E. pl. 331. Ola-watua,

Cing. Cotan, Tam.

These birds are generally distributed in all parts of the island

where mud and water combine to offer them congenial homes.

Totanus hypoleucos is found high up in the hilly country, fre-

quenting the streams, walking upon the boulders which appear

above the foaming torrents, in search of flies, or running on the

sand in the shallow pools to feed upon the minute crustaceans

which abound in such localities.

Tringa platyrhyncha is the rarest of the whole; one or two

specimens were procured at Pt. Pedro, where also I procured a

single pair of

269. Limosa #GOcCEPHALA, Linn.

These I killed in the month of April in fine plumage.

270. Himanrorus canpipus, Bonn. Poullow-kall, Mal. ; lit.

* Long-legs.”

Abundant in small flocks about the jungle tanks. They are

by no means shy, but will suffer a near approach, and often

alight on the same spot, though shot at several times ; in flying

they carry their long legs stretched out behind them, and utter

a shrill ery of “ wheet, wheet,” which, when many join in chorus,

is not an unmusical sound.

271. RecurvirostRis avocetTra, Linn.

A pair of these birds were shot by my esteemed friend

D. Quinton, Esq., at Chundicolom near Jaffna, on the estuary.

266 Mr. K. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

272. Ruyncn#a Bencaensts, Gmel. Rajah-kas-watua, Cing. ;

lit. King Snipe.

Not uncommon in all marshes ; it is a bird of passage, arriving

in October. Some few breed with us, the season of incubation

being from May to July. The nest is a simple depression m the

soil, and the eges, four in number, are dark nankeen-yellow,

profusely blotched with very large dark dry blood-coloured

markings. Axis | inch 4 lies, diam. 1 inch.

273. ScoLoPpax RuUSTICOLA, Linn.

The Woodcock has been shot several times at Nuwera Khia,

but has never fallen under the notice of either Dr. Kelaart or

myself in its feathers. Dr. Kelaart says that he saw ‘a couple

of birds called ‘ woodeocks’ at a dinner table, which tasted un-

commonly like the birds of that name.” I heard that a speci-

men was preserved in the Military Medical Museum in Colombo

in Dr. Kinnis’ time, but, like many other specimens there, has

been abstracted or suffered to fall mto decay.

274, GALLINAGO sTENURA. Kas-Matua, Cing.

The common Indian Snipe is very abundant in all parts of

Ceylon. They arrive in Jaffna about September.

275. GALLINAGO SCOLOPACINUS, Bon.

Not having met with this Snipe, I am obliged to quote

Dr. Kelaart for its identity ; he says, it ‘is found only in some

of the highland districts. We have seen a few at Nuwera Kha*.”

I shot many snipes at Gillymalle which proved to be the pre-

ceding species, but I see no reason why the bird should not exist

in the island, particularly as it is found in Calcutta: why, how-

ever, in this case should it be confined to the hills ?

276. GALLINAGO GALLINULA, Linn.

In this instance I think the “ sportsman’s authority” may be

trusted, as there is but little fear of the “Jack” being con-

founded with any of the Indian Snipes.

The late Mr. V. Burleigh of Jaffna, an ardent sportsman and

beautiful bird-stuffer, told me that he used frequently to meet with

them about Wally some years ago, but that of late he had not

seen any. My own testimony only reaches to a bird I saw on

table, luckily with both bill and legs perfect, and this I feel con-

vinced in my own mind was a Jack Snipe.

* And yet he says at page 135 that he has only “ sportsmen’s authority ”

for this species. There are very few sportsmen that I ever found sufficiently

discriminating to trust.

Mr. KE. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 267

277. HypRoPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS, Scop. Ballal-saaru, Cing. ;

ht. Cat Teal (also Juana, Cing.), from their mewing cry.

Exceedingly abundant on all tanks, and not uncommon even

on Colombo lake, frequenting the Lotus beds, walking on the

broad leaves ; they fly with great strength and facility, mounting

to a considerable altitude.

278. Porzana Fusca, Linn.

Syn. Gallinula rubiginosa, Temm.

Korawaka, Cg. The family name of all the tribe.

Rare: I have only seen three specimens, all found at Cotta

near Colombo.

279. Porzana Crytonica, Gmel. Nordewind, Dutch.

These birds arrive in the south of Ceylon in great numbers in

the month of October and November, coming in with the first

northerly wind which blows (whence the Dutch name). They

drop exhausted, as if from a long flight, in the streets and houses,

and conceal themselves till recovered from their fatigues. I

found one in the well of my carriage, another in the folds of the

gig apron, and a third in a shoe under my bed! The irides are

a lovely yellow and carmine blended, the yellow forming a circle

nearest the pupil. Some eggs were given me by a native as the

eggs of this bird, which were precisely similar in all respects,

save that of size, to those of the Gallinula phenicura. Axis

13 lines, diam. 10 lines.

280. Porzana pyem@a, Nan.

Very rare: a single specimen was brought to me alive from

Cotta.

281. Raxuus striatus, Linn.

I received one specimen of this bird from Batticaloa, and

another was brought alive to me while at Pt. Pedro. I placed it

in my aviary, and it lived well on small sea-fish, soaked grain,

&ec. ; it was unfortunately destroyed, along with many other

favourites, by rats.

282. Rauuus Inpicus, Blyth, J. A. S. xviii.

Three or four of these Rails were shot in the Jayelle paddy

fields near Colombo, by Lieut. Long of H.M. Ceylon Rifle Regi-

ment, to whom I am indebted for these and several other inter-

esting specimens.

268 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

283. GALLINULA PH@NICURA, Pennant. Korawaka, Cing., from

its cry, which this word precisely resembles.

Abundant throughout Ceylon in all marshy places, tanks,

rivers, and even ditches. It constructs a nest similar in shape

and position to that of our English Water-hen, and deposits from

six to fourteen eggs of a pale fawn colour, thickly mottled with

dark pinkish brown and bluish markings. Axis | in. 7 hnes,

diam. 1 in. 2 lines.

284. GALLINULA CHLOROPUS, Linn.

Very rare: I only procured one specimen, that I shot in a

marsh near Pt. Pedro.

285. Gantinuta cristata, Lath. Willi-kukula, Cing.; lit.

Marsh Fowl.

Common in the south about Matura, frequenting the sedges,

and feeding mornings and evenings on the inundated grassy

lands or paddy fields. It is very rare northward, only one spe-

cimen falling under my notice : I shot it in the same locality as

the preceding.

286. PorpHyrio POLIOCEPHALUS, Lath. Kzttala, Cing.

Abundant in secluded marshes. It is a shy wary bird, diffi-

cult to flush (unless the shooter comes suddenly upon it), pre-

ferring to skulk amongst the reeds, over and between which it

runs with great facility and swiftness. Its nest is constructed

like that of Gal. phenicura; the eggs a yellowish buff colour,

sparingly marked with smallish purple, faint blue, and olive-green

spots.

287. Pua@nicoprerus RosEUS, Pallas. Inglis Koku, Tam.; lit.

English Heron; the birds when standing in lines, feeding,

resembling with their red wings and white bodies an English

regiment in full parade dress. Krop-gans, Dutch.

Migratory, appearing in the north in November; they are so

plentiful on the salt-lakes and estuaries of the northern and east-

ern provinces that I have seen the shores for miles white with

them, and when the assembled multitudes rose on the wing, it was

with a noise that drowned the roar of the surf which thundered

on the beach close by. They are said to breed near Hambantotte.

288. SARKIDIORNIS MELANONOTUS, Pennant.

Not uncommon on the larger tanks in the Wanny; it keeps

together in flocks, and I fancy breeds with us.

Mr. KE. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 269

289. Nerrarus CoroMANDELIANUS, Gmel. Mal-saaru, Cing. ;

lit. Flower Teal, from its beauty. Rajah-tara, Mal. ;: lit.

King Duck.

Common on many of the tanks in the Wanny, particularly

in the neighbourhood of Anarajahpoora, where also

290. ANAS PHCILORHYNCHA, Pennant,

is frequently met with, though it is one of our rarest ducks.

291. Denprocyena arcuata, Cuvier. Chemba-tara, Mal. ; lit.

Red Teal ; and Tatta-saaru, Cing. Tree Duck and Whistling

Teal of Kuropean sportsmen.

Common on all fresh water throughout Ceylon, but never

found on the sea. ‘They breed with us in the month of June.

292. Darina acuta, Linn.

The “ Pin-tail” is occasionally shot on the Jaffna estuary by

the native duck-shooters and brought into the bazaar for sale,

fetching about 3d. each.

293. QUERQUEDULA cREccA, Linn.

and

294. QuERQUEDULA crRcrA, Linn.

Durimg the months of November, December, and January,

the head of the Jaffna estuary, and all the low grounds just withm

the sea-bank (which is usually broken through at this season),

are covered with vast flocks of these birds, which are killed so

plentifully by the natives with their miserable guns and worse

powder, that they are sold in the bazaars as low as one halfpenny

each. The method adopted by the native hunter is to train one

of the plough buffaloes for the sport ; it is guided by means of a

couple of ropes attached to its horns, a slight pull at which turns

the animal right or left, thus enabling the shooter to keep on the

off-side till within shot, when he rests his rusty musket on the

brute’s shoulder and fires. A punt and gun on these waters

would do wonders, and I conceive amply repay an ardent sports-

man the trouble and expense of reaching the spot.

295. FuULIGULA RUFINA? Pallas?

I introduce this species with a mark of doubt, because I only

know them through my telescope. I saw two or three pairs for

several weeks on a piece of brackish water between Jaffna and

Chavagacherry ; they would not allow me to get within 250 or

300 yards of them, and I therefore never managed to shoot one.

270 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

A head of F. rufina, however, which I received from Calcutta was

identified by a native as of a bird he knew and had killed on that

very piece of water, though he had not seen them elsewhere.

296. SpatuLa cLyPrEata, Linn.

Passing over the bridge crossing an arm of the above-named

lake, I surprised a female of this bird with her brood of twelve

young ones, most of which I captured ; the mother, though shot

at before I knew of the little ones, kept flymg round me and

often dropping into the water and feigning lameness, to draw me

away from her offsprmg: this occurred in the early part of

March. I have bought old birds from the shooters in November.

297. Popicers Puitrprensis, Gmel. Mukelepan, Tam.; lit.

Diver.

Common on large tanks and even in Colombo lake.

298. Larus BRUNNICEPHALUS, Jerd. Pullu, Tam. ; lit. Wormer.

Family name for Gulls and Terns.

Common all round the coast and on the lakes and estuaries ;

it swims well and catches small fish.

299. Larus 1cuTHyA#TUs, Pallas.

I saw two specimens of this fine and unmistakeable Gull on

the 11th of November 1851, at Pt. Pedro, after a severe storm ;

they were leisurely wending their way along the edge of the coral

reefs northward, and I watched them with the glass for five

minutes or more.

300. Dromas arpeoxa, Payk,.

I place this bird here among the Terns, as I cannot help agree-

ing with Mr. Blyth in his remarks upon its affinities and_posi-

tion. I have obtained several specimens, all at sea, with one

exception, which was on Calpentyn lake or estuary. A descrip-

tion of the egg which I formerly sent to Mr. Blyth, and his ob-

servation on the species, will be found in ‘Contributions to

Ornithology,’ published by Sir Wilham Jardine.

301. SyLtocHEeLipon Casprus, Lath.

302. GrLocHELIDoN ANneLicus, Mont.

303. Hyprocuexipon Inpicvus, Stephens.

304. THALASSEUS CRIsTATUS, Stephens.

305. THanasspus BenGaALensts, Lesson.

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 271

306. SEENA AURANTIA, Gray.

307. Sterna Javanica, Horsf.

308. SreRNuLA mMINUTA, Linn.

309. ONYCHOPRION ANASTHTUS, Scop.

The nine species here enumerated are found pretty generally

along our sea-border and on the lakes, estuaries, and salt lee-

ways. I could on any evening shoot six or eight specimens of

Sy. Caspius, either off Wally or Puthencally Bridges, as they flew

outwards to sea, and the same in the morning as they returned

inland. G. Anglicus and H. Indica are common all round the

island. Of Th. cristatus I obtained one specimen at Pt. Pedro.

Th. Bengalensis and S. aurantia pass in vast flights westward

along the coral-reefs on the north of Ceylon during the months

of May and June. St. Javanica is common even on the lakes at

Anarajahpoora, where also S¢. minuta is often seen, though the

latter is most common on tanks and still waters near the sea-

shore; these two species hunt much over dry paddy fields,

picking up insects of all kinds, small crabs, &e. Ony. anasthetus

is very rare; I obtained three specimens about ten miles out at

sea, off Pt. Pedro, when on a dredging excursion.

310. ATAGEN ARIEL.

Mr. Brodie of the Ceylon Civil Service first shot this species

on Calpentyn lake, and I subsequently saw two, which were

killed from the Light-house in Colombo in February 1853 ; one

passed into my possession, the other into the Museum of the

Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. I frequently saw

them during the month flying at immense altitudes over the

coast.

311. PLorus metanocastTEeR, Gmel. Beli Kawa, Cing.

Common on all good-sized tanks: breeds at the Tangalle lake.

312. Petecanus Puriiprensts, Gmel. Koolookedai, Mal.

Not unfrequently met with in small flocks on the sea-coast

upon estuaries and still water. I am told they breed near Mul-

letivoe, which is a splendid locality for all these tribes.

313. GracuLus SINENsIs, Shaw.

I have seen a few of these birds on the fishing kraals in the

Jaffna estuary, in company with the much commoner

272 M.W. Hofmeister on the Fertilization of Ferns.

314, GracuLus pyema#us, Pallas. Cadel cagam, Mal. ; lit. Sea

Crow. Dia Kawa, Cing.; lit. Water Kawa. See Krai,

Dutch. Graya de Mare, Port.

—which is also found abundantly on all the inland lakes and

rivers of any magnitude.

315. THALASSIDROMA PELAGICA, Briss.

The Stormy Petrel is occasionally seen flitting about Colombo

roadstead and Galle harbour, particularly after rough weather.

It was the last bird that I saw when I quitted the shores of the

island, and the last of my “ Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon.”

XXVI.— On the Fertilization of Ferns. By W. Hormetster *,

[Tue author having kindly sent me a copy of the following note,

I place it before the readers of the ‘Annals’ as an important

supplement to the notices I have published on the subject in

this Journal + and elsewhere. It may be remarked that these

statements, recording direct observation of the passage of the

spermatozoids down the archegonium, take away the necessity of

attributing a conducting power to the mucilaginous contents of

the canal of the archegonium, which I speculatively suggested,

never having been able to find a spermatozoid in contact with

the germinal vesicle.-—A. H.]

Numerous examinations of the prothallia of various Ferns m

which the embryo was in course of development—exammations

made for the purpose of ascertaining the order of formation of

the cells of the vegetative organs—have led to my discovery of

certain circumstances, hitherto unknown, affording more direct

conclusions regarding the process of reproduction in the higher

Cryptogamia.

The germinal vesicle originates in the central cell of the arche-

gonium, around a nucleus which appears in the vaulted apex of

that cell, without the primitive central nucleus undergomg any

essential change. I have already observed and described this

phenomenon in the Equisetaceze (Abhandl. der kon. Sachs. Ge-

sellsch. der Wiss. i. 172); it holds good of all the vascular

Cryptogamia. Before fertilization the germinal vesicle fills

scarcely one-third of the central cell. The primary nucleus of

* From the Reports of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, April 22,

1854. Communicated by Arthur Henfrey, F.R.S. &e.

+ Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. vol. ix. p. 444. Linnean Transactions,

vol. xxi. p. 117.

M. W. Hofmeister on the Fertilization of Ferns. 273

the latter has vanished by the time when the archegonium is

ready for impregnation. In the Ferns, as in the Equisetacex,

I never found more than one germinal vesicle in each arche-

gonium. In Salvinia, on the contrary, there are often two

present.

During the formation of the canal traversing the neck of the

archegonium, the membrane at the apex of the central cell

becomes softened. The spermatozoids which enter this canal

make their way through the mucilage filling it, as far as the in-

terior of the central cell, where they move actively round about

the germinal vesicle, which is closely adherent to the vaulted

apex of the central cell near the internal end of the canal, with

its hemispherical free end hanging down in the cavity. In one

case, when these spermatozoids had arrived at the central cell

of an archegonium of Aspidium Filix-mas, the movements lasted

for seven minutes from the commencement of the observation.

The cessation was accompanied (and probably caused) by the

coagulation of the albuminous substance of the fluid contents of

the central cell *.

When spermatozoids occurred in the cavity of the central cell,

* This is the place to mention the mode in which I proceeded in my

investigations. When Fern spores are thickly sown, a number of the ger-

minating prothallia soon advance far beyond the rest. At the time when

the advanced ones have long ceased to produce antheridia, and bear

abundance of archegonia (which in closely-tufted erect prothallia are pro-

duced on both surfaces, and most abundantly on those having most roots),

those which have remained behind im their growth are beginning to be

covered with antheridia. If the crop is now kept with little moisture for

several weeks and then suddenly abundantly watered, a large number of

antheridia and archegonia simultaneously burst. Then, in a few hours

afterwards, the surface of the larger prothallia will be found almost covered

with moving spermatozoids. I now take such prothallia as exhibit freshly

opened archegonia, holding them by one wing between the finger and

thumb of the left hand, so that the upper face of the prothallium hes upon

the thumb, and with a thin, narrow knife make delicate longitudinal sec-

tions perpendicular to the surface of the parenchymatous part of the pro-

thallium. When the cushion-like thickenmg of the tissue is only {th of

a line thick, after some practice it is not difficult to cut sections not more

than ;';th of a line broad. If such sections are quickly examined under a

power of 200 or 300 diameters, spermatozoids may sometimes be found in

the interior of the archegonia which are exposed in their whole length. I

once saw two, one close behind the other, in the canal of the archegonium

of Pteris aquilina, when their movements ceased during the observation ;

in the same Fern I saw one in motion in the central cell, at the side of the

germinal vesicle. In Asp. Filix-mas I have seen a spermatozoid moving

im the central cell, once more besides the case mentioned in the text ; and

in this, as well as in Asplenium septentrionale and Filix-femina, I have seen

motionless spermatozoids lying beside the partially-developed germinal

vesicle. Thus the unequivocal observations of moving spermatozoids in the

central cell amount only to three; but these were so clear and distinct as

to exclude all possibility of deception.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 18

274: M. W. Hofmeister on the Fertilization of Ferns.

the entrance of this appeared almost closed by the expansion of

the neighbouring cells. This growing up of the internal mouth

of the canal evidently followed immediately the entrance of the

spermatozoid into the central cell. This is the first phenomenon

which gives evidence of the completion of the fertilization,

and not, as i formerly assumed (Vergleich. Unters. p. 82),

the division of some of the cells immediately surrounding the.

central cell. The number of these is very variable in unfertilized

archegonia of the above-mentioned species. The impregnated

germinal vesicle enlarges until it fills the central cell, and then

commences its series of divisions (segmentation) which lay the

foundation of the various organs of the embryo.

In the Mosses also, the central cell of the archegonium be-

haves as an embryo-sac. There again the germinal vesicle is

found around a nucleus appearing free near (under) the primary

nucleus ; shortly before the formation of the canal leading

through the neck of the archegonium, formed by the dissolution

of the axile row of cells of the latter. The new canal lies in the

lower convexity of the central ceJl,—its position, and that of the

young germinal vesicle, are therefore opposite to those of the

same organs in the vascular Cryptogamia. The primary nucleus

soon disappears, the germinal vesicle grows considerably, and in

the mature archegonium more than half fills the central cell.

In the Mosses it mostly floats free in the centre ; more rarely it

adheres to the side or the upper part of the wall, which, in the

archegonium ready for impregnation, softens into a jelly, but

does not completely dissolve. In Hepatic with very large

cavity of the archegonium, such as Riccia, Riella and Fossom-

broma, the germinal vesicle often rests against some point of the

upper convexity, projecting freely into the cavity. I have no

doubt that spermatozoids of the Mosses pass the cord of mucus

(strongly refracting light) which occupies the axis of the canal

of the archegonium and projects a short distance mto its ex-

panded portion, that they enter into the latter and come in con-

tact with the outer surface of the germinal vesicle. I am the

more confident from having found moving spermatozoids, im

Funaria hygrometrica, which had penetrated down one-third of

the length of the neck of the archegonium. The tenuity of the

spermatozoids and the want of transparency in the walls of the

archegonium, will be a sufficient apology for the further fate of

the spermatozoids not having yet been observed here.

Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus. 27%

XXVII.— Upon a new species of “ Alpheus” discovered upon the

coast of “ Herm” (Channel Islands). By W.V. Guise, Esq.,

F.G.S.*

In the course of an excursion to the Channel Islands, under-

taken last summer with a view to natural-history pursuits, [

spent three days in the little islet of Herm, which, though a

mere rock, scarcely three miles in circumference, is equalled by

few spots of similar extent within the area of the British seas, In

respect of the rich field it offers for the researches of the marine

naturalist.

The Channel Islands, though an appanage of the crown of

Great Britain, are, eeographically speaking, rather a part of

France than of England; and this situation, in a sort of debate-

able ground, may perhaps in some degree ‘account for the fact

of their natural history having been to a certain extent over-

looked by the naturalists of both countries ; though few districts

can be expected to yield a richer harvest to the scientific inves-

tigator, constituting as they do the northern limit to many

Mediterranean forms, which, here found flourishing in full

vigour, and showing no signs of decrepitude, dwarfishness or

decay, suddenly disappear, and find no footing upon our side of

the Channel. This is well known to be the case amongst the

testaceous Mollusca; and there is little reason to doubt, that

researches prosecuted amongst the other kingdoms of nature

would be rewarded by the discovery of many novel and import-

ant facts.

Amongst the Crustacea, to which I propose especially to direct

your attention, it is only necessary to refer to the discovery of

the singular and beautiful “ Phyllosoma sarniense,” figured and

described by Mr. C. F. Lukis in the 8th volume of ‘ Loudon’s

Magazine of Natural History,’ which example, still I believe

unique, has its only analogues in one Mediterranean species, and

in a few others confined to tropical areas.

I propose now to lay before you another Crustacean, which it

has been my good fortune to obtain in a tide-pool at low water

on the islet of Herm, and which, from its immediate recognition

as the “red shrimp” by the fisherman who accompanied me, I

have reason to believe is not of unfrequent occurrence. My first

idea was, that I had obtaied “ Alpheus ruber,” itself a great

prize, being a Mediterranean species of the greatest rarity in our

seas; but upon comparing it carefully with the descriptions of

Milne-Edwards in his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés,’ I be-

* Read at a Meeting of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club, on Tuesday

9th May 1854.

18*

276 Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus.

came convinced that I had had the good fortune to obtain an

entirely new species of Alpheus ; and further investigations have

only tended to confirm me in that opinion.

The genus “ Alpheus” is thus characterized by Mailne-

Edwards :—

Carapace prolonged in form of a hood or vault over the eyes.

Rostrum small, and sometimes wanting.

Superior antenne small ; first articulation short, and armed with-

out with a plate, generally spiniform ; two following joints cy-

lindrical, having two terminal threads, of which the superior

is thicker and shorter than the inferior, and presenting traces

of a division into two filaments towards the end.

Inferior antenne inserted without and below the preceding.

Lamellar palp of moderate size, sometimes small and pointed.

Mandibles provided with a short, broad, palpiform appendage.

External pedipalps more or less slender and elongated, termina-

tion broad and somewhat foliaceous.

Two first pairs of legs didactyle, the first pair strong; the one

much larger and more robust than the other.

Second pair weak and filiform, having the wrist multi-articulate.

Three last pairs of legs monodactyle and of moderate length.

This genus, says M. Edwards, appears to belong properly to

the seas of warm climates. Some species are found in the

Mediterranean ; but the greater part come from the seas of the

Antilles or from the Indian Ocean.

The genus is divided into those which have, and those which

have not, a spiniform rostrum. It is further subdivided into those

having a spine attached externally to the basal joimt of the

external antenne, and those not so furnished.

The example now before us will be found to belong to the

second subdivision of the first division, 7. e. to those provided

with a pointed beak, and not having an external spine at the

base of the external antenne.

Under this head three species are described by M. Edwards as

inhabiting the European seas, viz.—

Alpheus ruber, Alpheus Edwardsii, and Alpheus dentipes, which

are characterized as follows :—

Alpheus ruber. “ Body very slender ; larger hand provided with

four longitudinal carinz, two on the upper edge, two on the

external face; lower margin obtuse; moveable finger much

shorter than the immoveable one. A spine upon the upper

Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus. 277

margin of both arms at some distance from the termina-

tion.”

It will be remarked that nothing is here said concerning the

character of the anterior portion of the carapace; but as this

species is said to be “ trés voisine de la précédente ” (“ Alpheus

brevirostris,’ a new Holland species), which is characterized as

having the border of the supra-orbital hood rounded and without

spines, it is to be inferred that the like character also applies to

A, ruber,

Alpheus Edwardsii. “ Very closely allied to the preceding. Ante-

rior borders of supra-orbital vaults armed with a spine, so that

the front presents three nearly equal teeth. The second joint

of the superior antennze about half as long again as the first.

Lamellar appendage of the external antenne dilated a little

within towards the end, and not passing the footstalk of the

superior antenne. Pedipalps very narrow towards the end,

and extending beyond the footstalk of the superior antenne.

Anterior legs nearly of the same form as in the preceding

species, but more enlarged, and having the pincers more

irregular ; those on one side slender and lengthened.”

Alpheus dentipes. ‘ Closely allied to the preceding : having like-

wise the supra-orbital vaults prolonged into points, but

having the two anterior legs nearly of the same size; the

pincers of the smaller large at the base, but becoming ex-

tremely narrow towards the end; having the third articu-

lation of the second, third and fourth pairs of legs armed

with a pointed tooth externally, at one-third the length of

each.”

Upon comparison of my Channel Island individual with the

three species described above, I find the following points of

agreement and difference between them.

It assimilates with A. ruber in having the larger hand fur-

nished with longitudinal carinee on the upper and the outer

surface ;

Differs, mm not having the moveable finger longer than the

immoyeable one ; and essentially in the spmous armature to the

supra-orbital hoods.

It assimilates with A. Edwardsi in having the anterior edge

of the supra-orbital hoods armed with short spines; and in

having the second joint of the superior antenne half as long

again as the first ;

Differs, imasmuch as the lamellar appendage is not dilated

towards the end ; in the longitudinal carme upon the upper and

278 Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus.

outer surface of the larger pincers; in the proportions and

form of the anterior feet, and m other minor particulars.

Assimilates with A. dentipes, as with Hdwardsi, m the spinous

terminations to the supra-orbital hoods ;

Differs, with respect to the comparative proportion between

the two anterior pairs of legs ; and inasmuch as the three hinder

pairs of legs are not armed externally with a pointed tooth.

Having thus shown in what respects the Alpheus from Herm

assimilates with, and differs from, the three species above re-

ferred to, it remains to describe its own particular character-

istics, which are as follows :—

The medial line of the carapace prolonged anteriorly into a

short beak: supra-orbital vaults, each furnished at the extremity

with a minute spine: anterior legs unequal; the larger hand

having upon the upper edge two carinz, one behind the other,

each terminating anteriorly in a small tooth projecting forwards ;

two carine upon the outer surface of the claw, the lower one

having a short tooth: the moveable finger not shorter than the

immoyeable one, flattened laterally, and broad at the point : the

immoveable finger triangular, strong, and forming a kind of

socket into which the opposing finger fits by a tubercle at its

extremity: lesser pincer having a toothed keel upon its upper

edge, equal in length to the others, but thinner, narrower, and

much. less robust: second pair of legs didactyle, slender, and

having the wrist many-jointed.

Length 15 lines.

Colour deep scarlet, except the chele, which are mottled with

yellow.

From the want of other works of reference, besides those of

M. Edwards and of Professor Bell, I have it not in my power to

ascertain whether the species now under notice has been distin-

guished by later carcinologists ; but I have endeavoured, I think

satisfactorily, to show that it cannot be identified with either of

the European species of Alpheus described by the former distin-

guished naturalist. As regards both the figure and description

of Alpheus ruber in Bell’s ‘ British Crustacea,’ they having been

confessedly taken from an zmperfect individual, found m the

stomach of a Cod-fish, have so little in common with my Channel

Island example, that, if identical with it, it must be presumed

that all the more marked points of agreement between them had

been digested away in the interior of the fish.

In the 8th volume of ‘ Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History,’

page 272, is however a notice of a Crustacean by the late Mr.

Hailstone, which certamly agrees far more nearly with my ex-

ample than do either of those to which I have already referred ;

Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus. 279

so nearly indeed, that but little doubt remains wpon my mind of

its being identically the same. This species, which Mr. Hail-

stone calls “ Hippolyte rubra,” and of which a figure is annexed,

is thus described :-—

“Superior antennz with two sete, the upper ones fringed

with hair and excavated below. Inferior antenne nearly the

length of the body. Pedipalps with three exserted joints, the

last bluntly pointed, and twice the length of the preceding one,

with two rows of fasciculi of hairs. First pair of legs didactyle,

very large, with the hands much compressed, unequal, the right

being the larger, bristly ; the thigh excavated beneath, and its

immer margin spinulose; second pair didactyle, very long,

slender ; wrists many-jointed ; other legs terminated by a single

claw and spinulose within; the last pair the most slender.

Thorax with three short spines anteriorly. Tail with five plates,

the middle one blunt at its apex, with four spines arranged in

two lines. Colour deep scarlet, except above the eyes, which are

concealed under the shell, and above them it is transparent and

colourless. The tail is fringed with white hairs, and the legs are

mottled with yellow.”

Upon this, at page 274 (same volume), is a note by Mr. West-

wood, in which, with much skill and critical acumen, he traces

Mr. Hailstone’s individual to the group of Alpheade, and refers

it to Cryptophthalmus ruber of Rafinesque, which M. Edwards

identifies with his “ Alpheus ruber.” Mr. Westwood afterwards,

at page 552, proposed to elevate it into the type of a new genus

by the name of ‘ Dienecia,’

Mr. Hailstone’s description, as quoted above, might almost

stand word for word as applicable to my example, with which it

seems to tally in all important particulars, excepting as regards

size, which, in the case of Mr. Hailstone’s Crustacean, is barely

two-thirds that of mine. The figures too attached to Mr. Hail-

stone’s notice would serve equally well to illustrate mine, with

the exception of the hairy fringe attached to the setaceous extre-

mities of the superior antennee.

If Tam right in my supposition of the identity of my Channel

Island Crustacean with the three individuals described by Mr.

Hailstone as brought up by the trawl-net off Hastings in 1835,

it 1s evident that the half-digested relics procured by Mr. Cocks

at Falmouth are not the first examples of an Alpheus having

been recorded as an inhabitant of the British seas. Indeed it is

impossible to read Mr. Hailstone’s careful and minute description

without feeling convinced that a true Alphean was before him

when he made his drawing and description ; and I may be par-

doned for expressing my surprise, which I do with great defer-

ence to the high attainments of Professor Bell, that that distin-

280 = Mr. P. H. Gosse on new species of British Actiniz.

guished naturalist, im adopting the ‘“ Crangon bispinosus” and

* trisptnosus”’ of Mr. Hailstone, should have omitted all reference

to a form so very remarkable and so carefully detailed as Mr.

Hailstone’s “ Hippolyte rubra.”

In the belief that my Channel Island Crustacean is a new and

undescribed species, I propose to bestow upon it the name of

Alpheus affinis ; thereby indicating the close relationship which -

it bears to the three other European species already referred to.

. Alpheus affinis, natural size.

. Enlarged view of front of carapace, showing supra-orbital vaults, inser-

tion of antenne, &e.

. Front of carapace still further enlarged, showing beaked rostrum and

spimous armature of supra-orbital vaults.

. Enlarged view of larger pincer.

. Enlarged view of lesser pincer.

. Tail.

to —

An Go

XX VIII.— Descriptions of three new species of British Actinize.

By Purr H. Gossz, A.L.S.

Actinia aurora. The Orange-tentacled Anemone.

Body in contraction a hemispherical button 3 inch in diameter,

of an umber-brown hue, occasionally varying to olive, marked

with narrow longitudinal pale bands, which become wider and

more conspicuous towards the base, and obsolescent at the discal

margin, where the brown hue is deepest. The pale bands are

separated by about four times their own width, but have at the

base several short and vanishing pale lines between them.

The exterior of the body is studded with numerous pale oblong

sucking-glands, not prominent, to which grains of sand, frag-

ments of shell, &c. adhere strongly.

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new species of British Actinie. 281

Tentacles about eighty in number, set in four rows, of which

the inner row contains about six a little more prominent than

the rest, and often either perpendicular or bent over the disk ;

the others are set so irregularly, that though there is an approxi-

mation to a serial arrangement, they can scarcely be distributed

into rows, except arbitrarily. The external ones are the smallest.

They are moderately thick at the base, tapered to a blunt point,

and the longest about equal in length to the diameter of the

disk. They are pellucid at the basal moiety, and nearly colour-

less ; thence they are tinged with orange or red-lead, faintly at

first, but becoming very brilliant at the tips. Under a lens this

colour appears to be superficial, and to be composed of minute

dust-like powdery specks; but on submitting the tentacles to

pressure under a power of 220 diameters, I find that the red

pigment is deposited on the interior surface, from which it

escapes by the rupture of the walls. The latter are somewhat

thin, yellowish, clear, and full of minute thread-cells of the usual

form, and about > 55th of an inch in length.

Disk variegated with dark brown, grayish drab and white ;

the former two colours arranged irregularly in a minute pattern,

the latter forming a circle of opake white spots surrounding the

mouth. The angles of the mouth are indicated by a pale band,

which passes from each across the disk, in which are conspicuous

the ovarian orifices.

The pattern of the disk is often the same as that of troglodytes,

but is never so distinct: in some specimens only the ring of

‘white spots can be seen on a blackish-olive ground ; in others

nearly the whole disk is yellowish-white. One specimen (which

I take to be a variety of this species) has all the tentacles pure

opake white, without any trace of orange, and the disk also

white, marked dimly with gray.

I find it in one of the caverns of St. Catherine’s Island, Tenby,

where it is common, in company with A. troglodytes, and with

the same habits.

One specimen in my possession produced young freely, ejecting

them from the oral aperture four or five at once. They varied

in size, from that of a mustard-seed downwards; were very

prettily marked, with radiating white bands on a yellowish

ground when contracted ; and displayed, when expanded, from

twelve to eighteen orange tentacles.

Actinia venusta. The Orange-disked Anemone.

Button about } inch in diameter, and the same in height.

Flower-like expanse | inch wide.

The button varies from deep buff to rich brown-orange, studded

282 Mr. P.H.Gosse on new species of British Actinie.

with minute pale sucking-glands, and marked around the base

with short and vanishing longitudinal pale lines.

Tentacles about 200 or more, not in distinct rows, the inner

ones about as long as the diameter of the disk, the outermost

small and close-set; slender, acute, somewhat flaccid ; pure

white, becoming pellucid at the base, and sometimes at the tip.

Disk commonly ovate, wholly of a brilliant orange or red-lead

colour, with no markings except the indications of internal struc-

ture, which are dimly visible through the integument. Its sur-

face is plane ; the mouth a simple orifice, without distinct lips or

cone.

This most elegant species I have met with only in the neigh-

bourhood of Tenby, where it is so abundant as to be quite cha-

racteristic. It occurs all along the south coast of Pembrokeshire,

at least from Monkstone Point to St. Gowan’s Head, but is more

than usually numerous in the fine perforated caverns of St. Cathe-

rine’s Island, that form such an attraction to Tenby visitors. It

is a troglodyte species, almost invariably choosing for its resi-

dence some crevice or cranny, or one of those little cavities made

by boring mollusks, with which the limestone here is so gene-

rally honeycombed. Though we often see it in shallow pools

with a bottom of mud, we invariably find on examination that

it is attached to a hole in the rock beneath, protruding its body

through the deposit by elongation, and expanding its beautiful

disk on the surface. From this habit it is difficult to procure,

nothwithstanding its abundance, as it must be chiselled out,—an

operation, which, from the great hardness of the limestone, is

both tedious and precarious.

Hundreds may be seen in the largest of the caverns alluded

to, hanging down from the walls during the recess of the tide ;

the button elongated to an inch or more. They expand very

readily in captivity, displaying the brilliant disk in full, fringed

with its elegant border of white tentacles; yet not unseldom do

we see the margin puckered into frilled folds, in the manner of

A. bellis and dianthus, though to a less extent.

This species has close relations with A. nivea and A. rosea,

especially with the former. Its colouring, however, seems con-

stant, without any tendency to albinism ; and its habit of throw-

ing the margin into puckers, and its tendency to an ovate out-

line, also distinguish it, though less satisfactorily. From rosea

it is better distinguished by its superior size, and by the greater

comparative thickness of its inner tentacles, which also are more

discal, whereas in rosea they are all marginal. All the three

species throw out white filiferous filaments i great profusion

when annoyed.

In venusta these are densely crowded with capsules 735th of

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new species of British Actinie. 283

an inch long, which protrude a thread about three times their

own length. This is slender, but occasionally I have detected

a waved outline which indicates a bearded appendage.

Actinia thallia. The Glaucous Warty Anemone.

Button 14 inch in diameter, usually ] inch in height, but

capable of elongation to double this altitude. Expanded flower

2 inches.

Button pale bluish-green, studded with prominent warts of a

darker hue, set in 25 to 30 longitudinal rows, about 25 in each

row ; the topmost or marginal wart becoming an elongated pale

tubercle or rudimentary tentacle.

Tentacles about 48 in number, in two rows, equal in size;

thick, obtuse, scarcely more than half as long as the diameter of

the disk, even when extended :—pellucid grayish-brown, with a

longitudinal, undefined, dark brown streak along the facial side

of each, on which are placed irregularly several specks and

splashes of opake white, varying in number, shape, size and

position.

Disk a many-rayed star of yellow rays on a blackish ground :

thus produced :—the inner circle of tentacles have their discal

ribs blackish, with a spindle-shaped spot of yellow near the

mouth. Those of the outer row are similarly marked, but the

yellow spot is drawn out to a long line, dividing the primary

tentacle-ribs from each other: these lines make the rays of the

facial star.

This is a very well-marked and constant species; out of a

dozen specimens that I procured, no two differed in any appre-

ciable degree, except in size. It approaches close to A. gemmacea,

from which however it is easily distinguished by colour, and by

its superior dimensions.

I found it in only one locality ; in the dark angles and pools

of a little insular rock, exposed at spring tide, that lies just off

the Cove called the Droch, near Lidstep in Pembrokeshire, on

the east side. It is not troglodyte im habit, but adheres to the

open rock, and is therefore easily detached. It is very social: I

almost invariably found four or five clustered together in a lump,

each pressing upon the sides of the others.

In captivity it is shy of expanding : it is also reluctant to ad-

here, and very readily detaches its base, either wholly or in part,

when it will frequently remain for days without again affixing

itself. Ifthe water become stale, it manifests its impatience in

this way, and dies sooner than most species. Like gemmacea, it

throws off successive rmgs of mucus from its body, which accu-

mulate around its base if not removed.

284: Bibliographical Notices.

The resemblance of this species to A. gemmacea is heightened

by the habit of elongating itself in the form of a column, when

closed.

It does not throw out filiferous filaments when irritated, but

the convoluted bands are protruded from wounds in the base.

Examining a small portion of one of these, I found two sorts of

capsules; one of a lengthened oval form, 535th of an inch in

length, from which a thread apparently simple, .4;th of an inch

long, is evolved; the other and more numerous, excessively

linear, ;15th in length. I am not sure, however, whether these

latter be capsules, as I did not see one discharge.

In the skin surrounding the margin the capsules are linear-

oblong and very minute, ;7;,th in length. Those in the walls

of the tentacles are similar in form and size.

The name is from @adX/a, an olive shoot, in allusion to its

elongated form and glaucous colour.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The Ferns of Great Britain. Illustrated by Joun E. Sowersy.

The Descriptions, Synonyms, §c. by C. Jounson. London:

J. E. Sowerby, 3 Mead Place, Lambeth.

We have received the first two Numbers of this new work upon the

British Ferns, and have much pleasure in being able to recommend

it to botanists and fern growers. Mr. Johnson has succeeded in

making his part of the book readable, without omitting the requisite

technical descriptions of the plants. We think that he has acted wisely

in retaining the names that are now most in use, for those are also

we believe the more correct ones, in nearly if not quite all cases.

Much as we are indebted to Mr. Newman for our present knowledge

of British Ferns, and greatly as his earlier writings tended to the

adoption of a correct nomenclature, we cannot allow the present

opportunity to pass without expressing sorrow that he should have

made such extensive and, as we think, uncalled-for changes in the

names in the lately-issued new edition of his ‘History of British

Ferns.’ It is right however to add, that we have only seen his

abridged account of them, published in connection with the ‘ Phyto-

logist,’ as we have not yet had an opportunity of examining his

larger work with the requisite care. Having paid no slight attention

to the nomenclature of Ferns, we do not expect that our views will be

much changed by its perusal.

But to return to the work before us. It may be considered as a

proof of how little objection we make to the describer’s part of it,

when we mention a subject of such slight consequence as the names

of the localities. It is nevertheless rather singular that all the Welsh

names are spelled wrong ; one of them indeed we have not identified,

it is Moel Sichog ; a name that does not occur in Mr. Moore’s very

Royal Society. 285

complete list of the localities of our ferns. The latter author has

made very similar blunders in printing the singular names of these

places, and those who are not intimately acquainted with the Snow-

donian mountains may well be excused for transcribing them incor-

rectly.

No notice is taken of Polypodium alpestre and its ally or variety

P. flexile, in the place which it might have been expected to occupy ;

but probably Mr. Johnson intends to adopt Mr. Newman’s genus

Pseudathyrium. Neither do we find any remark upon the Lastrea

uliginosa of Newman, which, if not a variety of LZ. cristata, as some

suppose, should find a place between that plant and ZL. spinulosa.

The plates bear out the remark in the Prospectus, that ‘the figures

will be all accurately drawn and engraved from the respective plants,

and thus many errors in identity and general detail, which had un-

avoidably occurred in ‘ English Botany,’ will be rectified.’’ Still, there

are manifest traces of the ‘Eng. Bot.’ plates being before the artist

when preparing those now issued.

We look forward with much interest to the publication of the suc-

cessive parts, and shall probably again notice the work when it is

further advanced.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

June 15, 1854.—The Earl of Rosse, President, in the Chair.

‘Contributions to the Anatomy of the Brachiopoda.” By Thomas

H. Huxley, F.R.S.

In the course of the dissection of certain Brachiopoda with which

I have recently been engaged, I have met with so many peculiarities

which are unnoticed in the extant and received accounts of their

anatomy, that although the pressure of other duties prevents me from

attempting to work out the subject with any degree of completeness

for the present, I yet gladly avail myself of the opportunity of com-

municating a few of the more important results at which I have

arrived, in the hope that they may find a place in the Proceedings of

the Royal Society.

My investigations were principally made upon Rhynchonella psit-

tacea, for specimens of which I am indebted to Prof. Edward Forbes,

while Dr. Gray obligingly enabled me to compare them with Wald-

heimia flavescens and with Lingula.

1. The Alimentary Canal of Terebratulide.—Professor Owen, in both

his earlier and his later memoirs on the anatomy of the Terebratulide,

describes at length the manner in which the intestine, as he states,

terminates on the right side between the lobes of the mantle.

On the other hand, Mr. Hancock has declared himself unable to

observe at this point any such anal aperture, and concludes from his

own observations that the latter is situated on the ventral surface of

the animal in the middle line, just behind the insertion of the great

286 Royal Society.

adductor muscle. M. Gratiolet, in a late communication to the

Académie des Sciences, takes the same view. ‘To get rid of the ob-

vious difficulty, that this spot is covered by the shell, and therefore

that if the anus existed here, there would be no road of escape for

the feeces, Mr. Hancock and Mr. Woodward appear to be inclined

to suppose that some cloacal aperture must exist in the neighbour-

hood of the pedicle.

The existence of any such aperture, however, has recently been

denied with great justice by Professor Owen.

The result of my own repeated examinations of Rhynchonella psit-

tacea and of Waldheimia flavescens is—1. that the intestine does not

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Rhynchonella psittacea, viewed in profile; the lobes of the mantle and

the pedicle being omitted.

Fig. 2. The same viewed from behind, the pedicle having been cut away. The

left half of the body and the liver are omitted.

a. mouth; 4. esophagus; c. stomach and liver; d. intestine; e. imperforate

rectum ; 7. mesentery ; g. gastro-parietal bands; A. ilio-parietal bands ; 7. superior

‘heart’; %. inferior ‘heart’; 4 genital bands; m. openings of pallial sinuses ;

n. pyriform vesicle; 0. sac at the base of the arm; p. ganglion; g. adductors.

Royal Society. 287

terminate on the right side of the mantle as Professor Owen describes

it, but in the middle line, as Mr. Hancock describes it in Waldheimia,

while in Rhynchonella it inclines, after curving upwards, to the /eft

side; and 2. that there is no anus at all, the intestine terminating

in a rounded cecal extremity, which is straight and conical in Wald-

heimia, curved to the left side and enlarged in Rhynchonella.

I confess that this result, so exceptional in its character, caused

me no small surprise, and I have taken very great pains to satisfy

myself of the accuracy of my conclusion; but notwithstanding the

strong prejudice to the contrary, to which the known relations of the

anal aperture in Lingula gave rise, repeated observation has inva-

riably confirmed it.

Professor Owen’s statement is, that in Rhynchonella (Terebratula)

psittacea ‘‘ the intestine inclines to the right side and makes a slight

bend forwards before perforating the circumscribing membrane in

order to terminate between the mantle lobes on that side.”—On the

Anatomy of the Brachiopoda, p. 152.

I find, on the contrary (figs. 1 and 2), that the intestine passes

wil |

\\\

at first straight downwards in the middle line, as in Waldheimia, but

instead of terminating in a rounded tapering extremity as in that

genus, it bends upwards and then curves round to the /eft side,

288 Royal Society.

forming a sort of free ceecum in the visceral cavity. My reasons for

believing that it is a free caecum are these :—in the first place, no

anal aperture can be detected in the mantle cavity, either on the

right or left sides, although the small size of the animal allows of

its being readily examined uninjured, with considerable magnifying

powers.

Secondly. If the shell be removed without injuring the animal

and the visceral cavity be opened from behind by cutting through its

walls close to the bulb of the pedicle, it is easy not only to see that

the disposition of the extremity of the intestine is such as I have de-

scribed it to be, but by gentle manipulation with a needle to convince

oneself that it is perfectly unattached. And in connexion with this

evidence I may remark, that the tissues of the Brachiopods in general

are anything but delicate; it would be quite impossible for instance

to break away the end of the intestine of Lingula from its attach-

ments without considerable violence.

Thirdly. If the extremity of the intestine, either in Rhynchonella

or in Waldheimia, be cut off and transferred to a glass plate, it may

readily be examined microscopically with high powers, and it is then

easily observable that its fibrous investment is a completely shut

sac. In Rhynchonella the enlarged cecum is often full of diatoma-

ceous shells, but it is impossible to force them out at its end, while

if any aperture existed they would of course be readily so extruded.

However anomalous, physiologically, then, this cecal termination

of the intestine in a molluscous genus may be, I see no way of

escaping from the conclusion that in the Terebratulide (at any rate

in these two species) it really obtains. There are other peculiarities

about the arrangement of the alimentary canal, however, of which I

can find either no account at all or a very imperfect notice.

The intestinal canal (figs. 1 and 2 0, d, e) has an inner, epithelial,

and an outer fibrous coat; the latter expands in the middle line into

a sort of mesentery, which extends from the anterior face of the

intestine between the adductors, to the anterior wall of the visceral

chamber, and from the upper face of the intestine to the roof of the

visceral chamber ; while posteriorly it extends beyond the intestine as

a more or less extensive free edge. I will call this the mesentery (/).

From each side of the intestinal canal, again, the fibrous coat gives

off two ‘bands,’ an upper (g), which stretches from the parietes of the

stomach to the upper part of the wails of the visceral chamber,

forming a sort of little sheath for the base of the posterior division

of the adductor muscle, which I will call the gastro-parietal band ;

and a lower, which passes from the middle of the intestine to the

parietes, supporting the so-called ‘ auricle.’ I will call this the ilio-

parietal band (h).

The ilio-parietal and gastro-parietal bands are united by certain

other ridges upon the fibrous coat of the intestine, from whose point

of union in the middle line of the stomach posteriorly, a pyriform

vesicle (m) depends.

The mesentery divides the liver into two lateral lobes, while the

gastro-parietal bands give rise to the appearance that these are again

Royal Society. 289

divided into two lobules, one above the other. I am inclined to think

that these bands are what have been described as ‘ hepatic arteries,’

at least there is nothing else that could possibly be confounded with

an arterial ramification upon the liver.

This description applies more especially to Rhynchonella and

Waldheimia, but the arrangement in Lingula is not essentially dif-

ferent.

2. The Circulatory System of Terebratulide.—Considerable differ-

ences of cpinion have prevailed among comparative anatomists as to

the nature and arrangement of the vascular system in the Brachio-

poda. A pair of organs, one on each side of the body, have been re-

cognized as Hearts since the time of Cuvier, who declared these

hearts in Linguda to be aortic, receiving the blood from the mantle

and pouring it into the body, the principal arterial trunks being dis-

tributed into that glanduler mass which Cuvier called ovary, but

which is now known to be the genital gland of either sex.

Professor Owen in his first memoir follows Cuvier’s interpretation,

stating that in Orbicula the pallial veins terminate in the hearts,

from which arterial branches proceed to the liver and ovary. Pro-

fessor Owen further adds for the Brachiopoda in general,—

«Each heart, for example, in the Brachiopoda is as simple as in

Ascidia, consisting of a single elongated cavity, and not composed of

a distinct auricle and ventricle as in the ordinary Bivalves,’”’ and he

compares the hearts of Brachiopoda to the auricles of Arca, &c.

(Trans. Zoological Society, vol. i. p. 159.)

In 1843, however, M. Vogt’s elaborate memoir on Lingula ap-

peared, in which the true complex structure of the ‘heart’ in this

genus was first explained and the plaited ‘auricle’ discriminated

from the ‘ ventricle’; and in 1845, Professor Owen, having apparently

been thus led to re-examine the circulatory organs of Brachiopoda,

published his ‘ Lettre sur l’appareil de la Circulation chez les Mol-

lusques de la Classe des Brachiopodes,’ in which he felicitates

M. Milne-Edwards on the important confirmation of the views which

the latter entertains with respect to the lacunar nature of the circu-

lation in the Mollusca, afforded by the Brachiopoda, and describes

each heart of the Terebratulide as consisting of a ventricle and a

plaited auricle, the pallial veins not terminating in the latter, but in

the gereral visceral cavity. As the Professor does not recall the view

which he had already taken of the circulation in Orbicula, I presume

that he considers two opposite types of the circulatory organs to ob-

tain in the Brachiopoda, the direction of the current being from the

mantle through the heart towards the body in Orbicula, and from

the mantle through the body towards the heart in Terebratula.

The possibilities of nature are so various that I would not venture,

without having carefully dissected Orbicula,—no opportunity of doing

which has yet presented itself,—to call this view in question, but I

think it seems somewhat improbable. Indeed the structural rela-

tions which I have observed, and which are described below, do not

appear to me to square with any of the received doctrines of Bra-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 19

290 Royal Society.

chiopod circulation, but I offer them simply as facts, not being

prepared at present to present any safe theory on the subject.

In Waldheimia flavescens there are two ‘ hearts,’ situated as Pro-

fessor Owen describes them, but so far as I have been able to ob-

serve, the ventricle cannot be described as an ‘oval’ cavity, inas-

much as it is an elongated cavity bent sharply upon itself. Hastily

examined of course this may appear oval. I have been similarly

unable to discover ‘ the delicate membrane of the venous sinuses,’

which is said by Professor Owen to “communicate with and close

the basal apertures of the auricles,” or to perceive that the auricular

cavity can be ‘‘ correctly described as a closed one, consisting at the

half next the ventricle, of a beautifully plicated muscular coat in

addition to the membranous one, but at the other half next the

venous sinus of venous membrane only; the latter might be termed

the auricular sinus, the former the auricle proper.”’

I presume that ‘this delicate membrane of the venous sinuses’

is what I have called the ilio-parietal band, in which the base of the

auricle is as it were set, like a landing-net in its hoop, but this

does not close the base of the auricle, the latter opening widely into

the visceral chamber.

I have equally failed in detecting any arteries continued from the

apices of the ventricles; and I have the less hesitation in supposing

I have not overlooked them, as Mr. Albany Hancock, whose works

are sufficient evidence of the value of his testimony, permits me

to say that he long since arrived at the conclusion that no such arte-

ries exist.

What has given rise to the notion of the existence of these arteries

appears to me to be this. A narrow band resembling those I have

already described, is attached in Waldheimia along the base of the

‘ventricle’ and the contiguous outer parietes of the auricle: inferiorly

it passes outwards to the sinuses, and running along their inner

wall, forms a sort of ridge or axis* from which the genitalia, whether

ovaria or testes, are developed, stretching through their whole length

and following the ramifications of the sinuses. It is the base of these

ridges seen through the walls of the sinuses, where they extend

beyond the genitalia, which have been described as arteries.

The upper end of the band passes into the sinuses of the upper lobe

of the mantle, and comes into the same relation with the genitalia

which they enclose.

The walls of the auricle in Waldheimia are curiously plaited, but

I have been unable, in either auricle or ventricle, to detect any such

arrangement of muscular fibres as that which has been described.

The epithelial investment of the auricle, on the other hand, is well

developed, and in the ventricle the corresponding inner coat is raised

up into rounded villous eminences.

The ventricle lies in the thickness of the parietes, while the auricle

floats in the visceral cavity, supported only by the ilio-parietal band.

The former is at first directed downwards, but then bends sharply

* This arrangement is, I find, particularly described by M. Gratiolet.

Royal Society. 291

round and passes upwards to terminate by a truncated extremity

close to the subcesophageal ganglion and bases of the arms.

Mr. Hancock informs me, that in his dissections he repeatedly

found an aperture by which the apex of the ‘ ventricle’ communi-

cated with the pallial cavity; and that, taking this fact in combina-

tion with the absence of any arteries leading from this part, he had

been tempted to doubt the cardiac nature of these organs altogether,

and to regard them rather as connected with the efferent genital

system, had not the difficulty of determining whether these aper-

tures were artificial or natural prevented his coming to any definite

conclusion at all.

Before becoming acquainted with Mr. Hancock’s investigations, I

had repeatedly observed these apertures in Rhynchonella, but preoc-

eupied with the received views on the subject, I at once interpreted

them as artificial. A knowledge of Mr. Hancock’s views, however,

led me to reconsider the question, and I have now so repeatedly

observed these apertures both in Waldheimia and in Rhynchonella,

that I am strongly inclined to think they may after all be natural.

If these organs be hearts, in fact, Rhynchonella is the most remark-

able of living Mollusks, for it possesses four of them. ‘T'wo of these

occupy the same position as in Waldheimia, close to the origins of the

calcareous crus (k), while the other two are placed above these, and

above the mouth, one on each side of the liver (2). It is these latter

which Professor Owen describes, while he has apparently overlooked

the other two ; at least he says (speaking as I presume of Rhyncho-

nella) (1. c. p. 148) that the venous sinuses ‘‘ enter the two hearts

or dilated sinuses which are situated exterior to the liver, and in

T. Chilensis and T. Sowerbii just within the origins of the internal

calcareous loop.”

The fact is, that while the ilio-parietal bands support two ‘ hearts’

as usual, the gastro-parietal bands are in relation with two others.

The base of the ‘auricle’ of the latter opens into the re-entering

angle formed by the gastro-parietal band with the parietes, while

its apex is directed backwards to join the ventricle, which passes

downwards and backwards along the posterior edge of the posterior

division of the adductor muscle.

The auricles in Rhynchonella are far smaller, both actually and

proportionally, than in Waldheimia. They exhibit only a few longi-

tudinal folds, and not only present the same deficiency of muscular

fibres as those of Waldheimia, but are so tied by the bands which

support them that it is difficult to conceive how muscular fibres, even

if they existed, could act. The ‘ventricles’ in like manner lie ob-

liquely in the parietes of the body, and simply present villous emi-

nences on their inner surface, which has a yellowish colour.

All these ‘ hearts’ exhibit the same curious relation with the geni-

talia in Rhynchonella as in Waldheimia; that is to say, a ‘ genital

band’ (/) proceeds from the base of the ‘ ventricle’ and becomes the

axis of the curiously reticulated genital organ. But in Rhynchonella

the genital bands of the upper genitalia come from their own

‘hearts.’

19*

292 Royal Society.

The arrangement of the genitalia in Rhynchonelia is very remark-

able. The sinuses have the same arrangement in each lobe of the

mantle. The single trunk formed by the union of the principal

branches in each lobe opens into the inner and anterior angle of a

large semilunar sinus which surrounds the bases of the adductors,

and opens into the visceral cavity. The floor of this great sinus is

marked out into meshes by the reticulated genital band, and from

the centre of each mesh a flat partition passes, uniting the two walls

of the sinus, and breaking it up into irregular partial channels.

There are the same anastomosing bands uniting the gastro-pa-

rietal and jlio-parietal bands on the stomach in Rhynchonella as in

Waldheimia, and a pyriform vesicle of the same nature, but I did not

observe in Rhynchonella those accessory vesicles upon the origins of

genital bands, which I observed once or twice in Waldheimia.

I could find no trace of arteries terminating the elongated, ovoid

and nearly straight ‘ ventricles’ of Rhynchonella; their ends appeared

truncated, and as I have already said, repeatedly presented a distinct

external aperture.

Such appear to me to be the facts respecting the structure of the

so-called hearts in the Terebratulide ; what I believe to be an import-

ant part of their peripheral circulatory system, has not hitherto, so

far as I am aware, received any notice.

In Waldheimia the membranous walls of the body, the parieto-in-

testinal bands and the mantle, present a very peculiar structure ;

they consist of an outer and an inner epithelial layer, of two corre-

sponding fibrous layers, and between them of a reticulated tissue,

which makes up the principal thickness of the layer, and in which

the nerves and great sinuses are imbedded.

The trabecule of this reticulated tissue contain granules and cell-

like bodies, and I imagined them at first to represent a fibro-cellular

network, the interspaces of which I conceived were very probably

sinuses. Sheaths of this tissue were particularly conspicuous along

the nerves. On examining the arms, however, I found that the oblique

markings, which have given rise to the supposition that they are

surrounded by muscular bands, proceeded from trabecule of a simi-

lar structure, which took a curved course from a canal which lies at

the base of the cirri (not the great canal of the arms, of course)

round the outer convexity of the arm, and terminated by breaking

up into a network. ‘These trabeculz, however, were not solid, but

hollow, and the interspaces between them were solid. ‘The network

into which they broke up was formed by distinct canals, and then,

after uniting with two or three straight narrow canals which ran

along the outer convexity of the arm close to its junction with the

interbrachial fold, appeared to become connected with a similar

system of reticulated canals which occupied the thickness of that

fold.

It was the examination of the interbrachial fold, in fact, which

first convinced me that these reticulated trabecule were canals; for

it is perfectly clear that vessels or channels of some kind must sup-

ply the proportionally enormous mass of the united arms with their

Royal Society. 293

nutritive material, and it is so easy to make thin sections of this part,

that I can say quite definitely that no other system of canals than

these exists in this locality.

The facts, then, with regard to the real or supposed circulatory

organs of the Terebratulide, are simply these :—

1. There are two or four organs (hearts), composed each of a free

funnel-shaped portion with plaited walls, opening widely into the

visceral cavity at one end, and at the other connected by a constricted

neck, with narrower, oval or bent, flattened cavities, engaged in the

substance of the parietes. The existence of muscular fibres in either

of these is very doubtful. It is certain that no arteries are derived

from the apex of the so-cailed ventricle, but whether this naturally

opens externally or not is a point yet to be decided.

2. There is a system of ramified peripheral vessels.

3. here are one or more pyriform vesicles.

4. There are the large ‘sinuses’ of the mantle, and the ‘ visceral

cavity’ into which they open.

To determine in what way these parts are connected and what

functions should be ascribed to each, it appears to me that much

further research is required.

Nervous System of Terebratulide.—Professor Owen describes and

figures the central part of this system as a ring surrounding the oral

aperture, its inferior portion being constituted by a mere commis-

sural band.

M. Gratiolet, however, states with justice that the inferior side of

this collar is the thicker, and I find both in Rhynchonella and in

Waldheimia that it constitutes, in fact, a distinct oblong ganglion,

of a brownish colour by reflected light. From its extremities com-

missural branches pass round the mouth, while other cords are

distributed to the arms, to the superior and inferior pallial lobes,

and to the so-called hearts. ‘The nerves are marked by fine and

distinct longitudinal striations, and can be traced to the margins of

the pallial lobes, where they become lost among the muscular fibres

of the free edges of the mantle.

Structure of the Arms.—I have not been able to convince myself

of the existence of that spiral arrangement of the muscular fibres of

the arms which has been described in Rhynchonella and Waldheimia.

I have found the wall of the hollow cylinder of the arm to be con-

stituted (1) externally by an epithelium, within which lie (2) the

reticulated canals, which have been already described; (3) by a de-

licate layer of longitudinal or more oblique and transverse fibres,

which are probably muscular, and (4) internally by a granular

epithelial layer.

In Rhynchonella the bases of the arms are terminated by two con-

siderable sacs, which project upwards into the visceral cavity. Have

these the function of distending and so straightening the spirally

coiled, very flexible arms of this species ?

Affinities of the Brachiopoda.—All that I have seen of the struc-

ture of these animals leads me to appreciate more and more highly

the value of Mr. Hancock’s suggestion, that the affinities of the

294: Zoological Society.

Brachiopoda are with the Polyzoa. Asin the Polyzoa, the flexure of

the intestine is neural, and they take a very natural position among

the neural mollusks between the Polyzoa on the one hand, and the

Lamellibranchs and Pteropoda on the other.

The arms of the Brachiopoda may be compared with those of the

Lophophore Polyzoa, and if it turns out that. the so-called hearts

are not such organs, one difference will be removed.

In conclusion, I may repeat what I have elsewhere adverted to,

that though the difference between the cell of a Polyzoon and the

shell of a Terebratula appears wide enough, yet the resemblance be-

tween the latter with its muscles and the Avicularium of a Polyzoon,

is exceedingly close and striking.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 25, 1851.—W. J. Broderip, Esq., F.R.S., Vice-President,

: rip, sq

in the Chair.

ON A SPECIES OF AUSQUOREA INHABITING THE BririsH SEAS.

By Pror. Epwarp Forees, F.R.S.

In the first volume of the ‘ Wernerian Memoirs’ a ‘‘ Medusa equo-

rea’ is mentioned by Prof. Jameson as an inhabitant of the seas of the

north of Scotland, and in the ‘ History of British Animals’ by Dr.

Fleming, the name “‘Geryonia equorea’”’ is used to designate it. As no

description or figure was ever published of this creature, and as the

diagnosis of the “Medusa”? to which Linnzeus applied the name of

** equorea’’ was too brief for identification, it is possible that some

one out of several Acalephee inhabiting our seas might have been in-

tended.

It is also possible, however, that a true Aquorea had been seen,

for there is a most beautiful species of this genus an inhabitant of the

Scottish seas. I met with it for the first time in August 1850, when

exploring the Minch (the channel between the outer Hebrides and

Skye) in company with Mr. MacAndrew and Prof. Goodsir, with the

advantages of the appliances for natural-history research with which

Mr. MacAndrew has furnished his yacht, the Natad. As there is

neither figure nor description of any British quorea to be found,

and as poneuerable obscurity hangs around the Atlantic species of

the genus, I have drawn up the following notice.

A number of individuals were Gbsemucde they were swimming near

the surface of the sea on a very calm and hot day: they varied in

size, from three inches in diameter to as much as half a foot or more:

they resembled broad shield-shaped discs of glass, slightly promiment

above, incurved at their sides and concave beneath: through the

discs were seen shining the pendent brown-tinged stomach, and around

it, like so many equal stripes or rays proceeding to the margin, the

linear violet genital glands: from the margin depended highly-con-

tractile violet tentacles.

The umbrella is broad, shallow, and dise-shaped, its outline de-

Zoological Society. 295

scribing a gentle curve. It is hyaline, not very thick, and quite

smooth. The central portion of its interior, occupying about one-

fourth of its diameter, has dependent from it the membranous veil-

like walls of the stomach ; these hang not quite so low as on a line with

the margins of the umbrella. The stomach, although equal in width

throughout, may be divided into two regions, an upper and a lower.

The latter has a furbelowed and somewhat scalloped, but not cirrated

margin, and may be rezarded as the mouth. The former is marked

internally by eizht ba ide of transyers2 fibres, separated by as many

“pha ones; these appear to be m iscular. The whole of the

nembrane of the stomach and lips is: tinged with pale foxy brown,

sails disposed in streaks. Around the upper and inner margin of

the cavity are the orifices of the gastro-vascular canals; these run,

without dividing or anastomosing, a the circular marginal canal of

the umbrella. a a specimen fae inches across, they were 136 in

number. From tie lower side of each canal depend two narrow,

ratuer wavy membranes of a yiolet colour, causing the ray-like streaks

that shine so conspicuously through the dise; each of these arises

gradually near the superior extremity of a gastro-vascular canal, and

ceases abruptiy at about one-eighth of the entire length of the at

from the margin: they are the genital glands. At “the junction of

each alternate gastro-vascular canal ie the circular marginal one is

the bulb-like base of a marginal tentacle: these tentacles arise from

ovate bulbs and gradually taper toa fine point. The bulbs are pale,

but the tentacle is tinged with violet. Opposite the intermediate

canal there is a smaller bulb with a tentacle, hollow and containing

corpuscles in its centre, and on each side, between it and the neigh-

bouring tentacle, is a still smaller lobe-like body. Along the upper

margin of the circular canal are very minute pedunculated organs

that move to and fro. On the bulb at the base of the tentaculati is a

minute tongue-shaped process at the base of a depression ; at its own

base the ocellus or rudimentary eye is lodged. When seen laterally,

the peculiar tissue of the base of the tentacles is observed to be set

obliquely. Within the umbrella, from a line just opposite the ten-

tacular circle, a short but rather broad veil with a simple edge is seen

to depend; this veil is tinged with pale brown. A band of motor

tissue, forming a sphincter to the umbrella, accompanies the circular

vessel.

According to the size of the example, the number of genital glands

and of tentacula varied: they increase with age. The smallest num-

ber of tentacula seen was sixteen, and there is reason to believe that

they are never fewer.

To ascertain whether this beautiful animal be the Medusa equo-

rea of Linneeus and the naturalists who wrote during his time, it is

necessary to inquire into the history of that species. The name just

mentioned occurs first in the ‘Iter Hispanicum’ of Peter Loefling,

published in 1758. In his journal of observations on the 18th of

April, at Cumana, he notices, along with Medusa (i. e. Aurelia)

aurita, Medusa pelagica (Pelagia cyanella’?), and Velella, another

Medusa, which he styles @quorea, and describes as ‘ orbicularis,

296 Zoological Society.

planiuscula, tentaculis plurimis ex margine inflexo, branchiis nullis.”

This notice, which occurs at page 105 of the Swedish edition of his

‘ Travels,’ is the entire original foundation for numerous references in

after-authors. Linnezeus, in the first instance, adopted Loefling’s name

and brief record, which, when read with our present knowledge of

Acalephe, barely indicates the genus to which the animal observed

probably belonged. In 1775, the descriptions and figures of animals

observed during his journey to the East by the lamented Forskal were

published under the superintendence of Carsten Niebuhr. Among

them was a representation and description of a Medusa, referred to

the equorea of Linnezeus, both excellent, as indeed may be said of all

that Forskal did. In 1776 a Medusa equorea was noticed, scarcely

more than by name, in the ‘ Zoologize Danicee Prodromus’ of Otho

Frederic Miller. In 1780, Otho Fabricius, in his excellent ‘ Fauna

Groenlandica,’ gives a shorter account than usual with him of a Me-

dusa, which he refers to the equorea of Linneeus. He speaks of it

as a very simple animal, smaller and softer than Medusa aurita, con-

vex above, concave beneath, with very much inflected margins and

white marginal cilia. ‘The two last-mentioned characters are opposed

to the notion of Medusa equorea, as represented and described by

Forskal, and the first of them to the slight idea of its shape that we

gather from Loefiing. In 1791 Adolph Modeer commenced the work

of hair-splitting by separating the animal of Forskal, under the name

of Medusa patina, from that of Loefling, for which he reserved the

name Medusa equorea. In 1809 Peron and Lesueur published in the

‘Annales du Muséum d@’ Histoire Naturelle,’ vol. xiv., their important |

classification and synopsis of all known Medusze. In that paper, ex-

cellent though it be, they increase the confusion, by giving the name

of Hquorea atlantica to Loefling’s animal, 4q¢. danica to Miller’s,

Ng. grenlandice to that of Fabricius, 4g. Forskalea to that of For-

skal, and Ag. stauroglypha to a new species of their own, probably

identical with all the others. In 1829 Eschscholtz, in his ‘System

der Acalephen,’ attempted to. rectify this confusion, by rejecting all

these names excepting gq. Forskalina, that alone having been suffi-

ciently described. In 1843 Lesson published his History of Acale-

phee in the ‘Nouvelles Suites 4 Buffon,’ and, to make confusion worse

confounded, rejected all rectifications and restored all the names and

imperfectly noticed individuals to full specific rank.

After attentively considermg the notices more or less perfect that

the various older observers have given, of what they call Medusa

equorea, 1 am led to the belief that in most mstances one species,

not several, was met with, and that the creature which I now de-

scribe as British is identical with the Medusa equorea of Loefling,

Forskal and Miller. Since Forskal alone described and figured it in

a comprehensible manner, the name 4iquorea Forskalea, proposed b

Peron, is peculiarly appropriate, the more so since that of Medusa

patina of Modeer was proposed under a mistake. Forskal expressly

states that his species is common to the North Atlantic and the Medi-

terranean, and that it inhabits the Danish seas, where it is called

“*Vandmand,” that is, Waterman.

Zovlogical Society. 297

It remains to be seen whether our species is related to the Aquo-

rea violacea of Milne-Edwards, well described and beautifully figured

in the 16th volume of the 2nd series of the ‘ Annales des Sciences

Naturelles,’ and observed by that eminent naturalist in the Mediter-

ranean. From an examination of its anatomy he first showed the

serious error committed by Eschscholtz in considering the Aquoride

as eryptocarpous. I am inclined to agree with Milne-Edwards in

considering his species distinct from that of Forskal. The genital

glands are not prolonged nearly so close to the margin; the lips of

the stomach are not furbelowed; the bases of the tentacles are not

bulbous, and originate regularly between the gastro-vascular canals.

There were no eyes observed by the distinguished zoologist just

quoted in the species he examined. In ours the eyes are evident,

and a determination of their position and appearance is of conse-

quence, since they confirm the affinity of 4quorea with the Naked-

eyed Medase, whilst at the same time, in the little appendage or

rudimentary lid projecting above them, they indicate an approach to

the Steganophthalmatous type, such as is consistent with the general

high organization and aspect of the Myuorea when compared with

other Gymnophthalmatous forms.

It is interesting to remark that the #yuorea ciliata of Eschscholtz

is a North Pacific species, beautifully representing, yet quite distinct

from, Afquorea Forskalea.

December 9, 1851.—W. Yarrell, Esq., in the Chair.

On some Bones or Dipvus. By A. D. Barruert.

The history of the Dodo having been recently the subject of se

much inquiry, and the exertions made by Mr. Strickland, Dr. Mel-

ville and others, havmg succeeded in bringing together so many

important facts, it might appear that there was little more to be said

upon the subject ; this, however, I believe is far from being the case.

A few facts established upon a subject which was before obscured in

doubt and error will, I trust, always act as a charm, and induce us at

every opportunity to investigate that subject still further, in the hope

of learnmg the truth. On the present occasion I am desirous of call-

ing attention to a few bones upon the table. In so doing I beg to

say, that in the year 1830 a collection of bones arrived in Paris, which

attracted the attention of the scientific world. These bones came

from the island of Rodriguez, but on account of their being incrusted

with stalagmite, little has been done with them; they were, however,

the cause of search being made for more in the same locality, and two

collections were made in the year 1831 by the late Mr. Telfair. One

of these collections was forwarded to the Andersonian Museum in

Glasgow, the other to the collection of this Society, and at the even-

ing meeting, March 12, 1833, the bones sent by Mr. Telfair were

laid upon the table.

I will here read an extract from the Society’s Proceedings :—“ Dr,

Grant pointed out that they were the bones of the hinder extremit

of a large bird, and the head of a humerus. With reference to the

298 Zoological Sucrety.

metatarsal bone, which was long and strong, Dr. Grant pointed out

that it possessed the articulating surfaces for four toes, three directed

forwards and one backwards, as in the foot of the Dodo preserved in

the British Museum, to which it was also proportioned in magnitude

and ferm.’’

I beg now to read a paragraph from Mr. Strickland’s book. At

page 52 we find: “The bones sent by Mr. Telfair in 1833 to the

Zoological Society have met with some unfortunate fate. Three or

four years ago, Mr. Fraser, the late Curator of that Society, made, at

my request, a diligent search for these specimens, but all his endea-

vours to find them were fruitless: he found the identical box sent

by Mr. Telfair, but, alas! the bones of the Solitaire, apterous as it

was, had flown away, and the only bones that remained belonged to

tortoises.”

In the month of July last an opportunity was afforded me by the

Secretary of renewing this search, and I had the good fortune to

find what I believe to be all the specimens sent to the Society by

Mr. Telfair.

Upon my informing Mr. Mitchell of my success, that gentleman,

knowing the trouble and interest I had taken to recover them,

granted me permission to examine, compare, and describe them, and

to bring the subject before the Society.

In the first place, we are led to believe (and I think without the

slightest doubt) that these bones came originally from the island of

Rodriguez. There cannot be any doubt, also, that Rodriguez and

the neighbouring islands were at one period inhabited by several spe-

cies of large birds. Whether any of the same species of these birds

inhabited different islands, or whether each island was inhabited by

distinct species, is a question to which I beg most particularly to call

your attention: the most recent publication by Mr. Strickland and

Dr. Melville would lead us to believe that the true Dodo (Didus in-

eptus) was solely confined to the island of Mauritius, and another

species, known as the Solitaire, was said to be its representative on the

island of Rodriguez, If this be true, I should have the pleasure of

introducing to your notice the bones of at least two new species of

birds from that island: I do not however myself feel justified in so

doing, but believe some of the bones sent here by Mr. Telfair belong

to the true Dodo (Didus ineptus). There are also in the collection

(I think without doubt) bones of two other species, one of these

of much larger size than the Dodo, the other considerably smaller.

The bones in question having all the usual and well-known charac-

teristics of those of adult birds, we cannot therefore suppose the dif-

ferences which they present to be such as might arise from age; and

on the other hand, you will perceive that the proportions are too dis-

similar to allow of our regarding them as having belonged to different

sexes of the same species. There often exists great difference of size

in the bones of the opposite sex, but I have never noticed any very

evident difference of proportion. These are to me satisfactory reasons

for considering them specifically distmet. But to return to the ques-

tion, — Was the Dodo found on the island of Rodriguez? Sir Thomas

Zoological Society. 299

Herbert says i¢ was; and his evidence appears to me of much im-

portance, considering the number of years he spent travelling about,

visiting these islands, and collecting rare and curious things ; having

also repeatedly described the Dodo, and very probably brought one

to England. I am therefore inclined to regard the assertions made

by Sir Thomas Herbert with more respect than they have elsewhere

received. It may appear at first sight impossible that the same spe-

cies of birds which were destitute of the power of swimming or flying

could inhabit islands so far from each other; but, were these islands

always in the state in which we find them? may they not at some

distant period have been united and formed part of the same land?

In endeavouring in this manner to account for the existence of the

Dodo upon the island of Rodriguez as well as at Mauritius, it has

been remarked that this argument would not hold good, as the islands

m question were of volcanic origin: if this be the case, to account for

its existence at either place appears to me equally difficult. 1 am

fully aware it has been the practice of late to consider the animals

obtained from localities remote from each other specifically distinct ;

they may be so; but unless we have some certain means of distin-

guishing them, I do not think we ought to regard them as such.

I now venture to introduce to your notice what I believe to be the

tibia of the Dodo (Didus ineptus): its agreement with the foot in

the British Museum struck me as being exceedingly remarkable and

conclusive : its size and proportions, as compared with the metatarsal

in question, are exactly what I should have expected upon the sup-

position of their belonging to the same species: they fit each other

so perfectly, that one might think they belonged to the same indi-

vidual. With this evidence before me, I cannot for one moment

hesitate in considering the Dodo of the Mauritius to be identical with

the Dodo of Rodriguez. There are also in this collection two other

bones, which, from their size and form, I believe to belong to this

species: the most remarkable is the head of the Aumerus, which would

indicate by its magnitude and broad attachments that it belonged to

a bird of large bulk, while the sudden reduction in the size of its shaft

clearly indicates a bird with small wings. The great thickness and

consequent weight is sufficient to cause us to suppose that this bird

had not the power of flight.

The next bone to which I will call your attention is a right meta-

tarsal, which appears to me to have belonged to a bird known to

Leguat as the Solitaire, and described by him during his residence

on the island of Rodriguez. I beg to read Leguat’s description, in

order to point out to you its near agreement in point of size and form

with the Turkey, with which bird Leguat compared the bird he called

the Solitaire :—

“Of all the birds in the island, the most remarkable is that which

goes by the name of the Solitary, because it is very seldom seen in

company, though there are abundance of them. The feathers of the

male are of a brown-grey colour: the feet and beak are like a Tur-

key’s, but a little more crooked. They have scarce any tail, but

their hind part covered with feathers is roundish, like the crupper of

300 Zoological Society.

a Horse; they are taller than Turkeys. Their neck is straight, and

a little longer in proportion than a Turkey’s when it lifts up its head.

Its eye is black and lively, and its head without comb or cop. They

never fly, their wings are too little to support the weight of their

bodies ; they serve only to beat themselves, and flutter when they

call one another. They will whirl about for twenty or thirty times

together on the same side, during the space of four or five minutes.

The motion of their wings makes then a noise very like that of a

rattle, and one may hear it two hundred paces off. The bone of

their wing grows greater towards the extremity, and forms a little

round mass under the feathers, as big as a musket ball. That and

its beak are the chief defence of this bird. ’Tis very hard to catch

it in the woods, but easie in open places, because we run faster than

they, and sometimes we approach them without much trouble. From

March to September they are extremely fat, and taste admirably well,

especially while they are young; some of the males weigh forty-five

pounds.

«The females are wonderfully beautiful, some fair, some brown; I

call them fair, because they are of the colour of fair hair. They have

a sort of peak, like a widow’s, upon their breasts (/ege beaks), which

is of a dun colour. No one feather is straggling from the other all

over their bodies, they being very careful to adjust themselves, and

make them all even with their beaks. The feathers on their thighs

are round like shells at the end, and being there very thick have an

agreeable effect. They have two risings on their craws, and the

feathers are whiter there than the rest, which livelily represents the

fine neck of a beautiful woman. They walk with so much stateli-

ness and good grace, that one cannot help admiring and loving them ;

by which means their fine mien often saves their lives.”—Leguat’s

Voyage to the Hast Indies, 1708, p. 71.

You will perceive this bird was said to be larger and taller than a

Turkey. A comparison of this metatarsal bone with the metatarsal

bone of the Turkey I think will satisfactorily show the accuracy of

Leguat’s description, and at the same time justify our conclusion

that this metatarsal bone belonged to the Solitaire of Rodriguez, to

which the name of Didus solitarius has been applied. I trust I shall

be pardoned for avoiding the use of the new generic term adopted by

the authors of ‘The Dodo and its kindred,’ for in a group so little

known, and at present so limited in species, it seems to me so much

to increase the trouble and difficulty of those who endeavour to study

such subjects, that I cannot help expressing my belief that many of

the new names so often introduced serve only to impede and embarrass

us, and I therefore regard them as much worse than useless.

I have now remaining the bone of a bird which when alive was

much larger, heavier, and more powerful than the Dodo. For further

examples of this bird’s bones, I must refer to the plates in the work

before alluded to, by Mr. Strickland and Dr. Melville: plate xv. fig. 2,

the metatarsal bone of the large species in the Andersonian Museum,

Glasgow ; fig. 3, a metatarsal bone in the Parisian collection. A glance

at these specimens will, I imagine, convince any one that this bird

Zoological Society. 301

was of gigantic size, and probably double the weight of the Dodo. I

am sure it cannot be supposed (after what has been said) that Leguat

was describing this great bird when he wrote his beautiful description

of the Solitaire. Another important fact will, I think, set this question

at rest. Leguat states, that some of the males of the Solitaire weigh

Sorty-five pounds. Now we know the weight of the largest Turkeys

to be considerably less, rarely reaching thirty pounds, while the weight

of the Dodo is stated to have been at least fifty pounds. It cannot,

therefore, be supposed, had Leguat seen birds nearly double the size

of the Dodo, he could have made the statements or comparison he

has made between the Solitaire and Turkey.

I have before expressed my great dislike to an unnecessary increase

of names: I feel, however, the necessity of finding an appropriate

name for this large bird, and therefore propose one somewhat familiar

to all who have paid any attention to the subject, and apply the name

of Didus Nazarenus to this the largest species of the genus. In doing

this, I may remark that Mr. Strickland, in his work before alluded

to, has considered the Didus Nazarenus to be a phantom species,

which he says has haunted our systems of ornithology from the days

of Gmelin downwards.

The conclusions which I have arrived at from the examination of

the bones to which I have just called your attention are these :—That

there existed formerly three distinct species of Apterous birds in the

island of Rodriguez; namely, one which is apparently identical with

the Dodo (Didus ineptus) of the Mauritius; a second, which was

well described under the name of Solitaire; and a third, which was

much larger than either of the above.

12 College Street, Camden Town.

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF MAMMALIA OF THE

GENUS ANTECHINUS. By JoHN GOULD, F.R.S. Etc.

One of these species is remarkable for being spotted on the under

instead of on the upper surface, and the other for its very diminutive

size: both rank among the smallest members of the genus. For the

former I propose the specific appellation of maculatus ; it may be

thus described :-—

ANTECHINUS MACULATUS.

Fur short, dense, and closely applied to the skin ; general tint of

the upper surface dark blackish brown, minutely grizzled with yellow-

ish brown ; lower part of the flanks and under surface of the body

dark brownish slate-grey, ornamented with oblong spots of greyish

white arranged in irregular rows in the direction of the body; down

the centre of the throat a streak of white.

inches.

Length from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail 33

of the tail re is CS Re ae

from the tip of the nose to the base of the ear

GlCHE CME. . o Wlecaen aes ar:

GL (Ne CALS ANGMDeN Aas oe fc. ches sk gee

Hab. Brushes of the river Clarence, on the east coast of Australia.

Ble rR

302 Zoological Society.

The other species I propose to name

ANTECHINUS MINUTISSIMUS.

Fur short, dense, and closely applied to the skin; upper surface and

flanks brown, slightly grizzled with black ; under surface pale buff,

approaching to white on the throat ; tail brown above, lighter be-

neath ; feet buffy brown, toes covered with hairs of a somewhat lighter

hue. inches.

Length from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail 23

eee Ot (he tall ie ge a et eee! aes te ee a

from the tip of the nose to the base of the ear 7q

of the ear es As

Of FNCEEAESI ING, bOCS 6070 fev cn ee te eed

TIab. Brushes of the east coasts of Australia.

DESCRIPTIONS OF A NEW SPECIES OF PTILOTIS AND A NEW

SPECIES OF E6rsALTRIA. By Joun Gou tp, F.R.S.

Mr. Gould also exhibited two new species of birds of the genera

Ptilotis and Eépsaltria, which he characterized as follows :—

PTILOTIS FASCIOGULARIS.

All the upper surface, wings and tail olive-brown, the feathers of

the head and back with darker centres, and the primaries and tail-

feathers narrowly margined externally with greenish wax-yellow ;

lores and a streak down the side of the head from the posterior

angle of the eye blackish brown; ear-coverts pale yellow; on each

side of the neck a patch of yellowish white; feathers of the throat

brownish black, each bordered with pale yellow, presenting a fasciated

appearance; breast blackish brown; under surface striated with brown

and buffy, becoming paler towards the vent ; irides lead-colour ; bill

and feet black.

Total length, 74 inches ; bill, $; wing, 33; tail, 35; tarsi, 1}.

Hab. Mangrove Island, Moreton Bay.

Female.—Similar in colour, but of smaller size.

EépsaLtria Capito.

Upper surface olive-green, inclining to brown on the head ; wings

and tail slaty brown, faintly margined with olive-green ; ear-coverts

grey ; lores and a line descending in front of the eye and the throat

greyish white; under surface yellow; irides hazel; bill black; feet

brownish flesh-colour.

Total length, 5 inches; bill, 3; wing, 34; tail, 24; tarsi, 2.

Hab. Brushes of the River Brisbane, New South Wales.

Remarks.—Shorter and less elegantly formed than H. Australis,

with a stout broad bill and a proportionately large and heavy head.

Feb. 24, 1852.—W. J. Broderip, Esq., F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

On THE Hasitrs or StTrRIGOPS HABROPTILUS OR KAxKApPo.

By Davip Lyauu, M.D., R.N., Lare Surcreon to H.M:S.

ACHERON.

Although the Kakapo is said to be still found occasionally on some

parts of the high mountains in the interior of the North Island of

Zoological Society. 303

New Zealand, the only place where we met with it, during our cir-

cumnavigation and exploration of the coasts of the islands in H.M.S.

Acheron, was at the S.W. end of the Middle Island. There, in

the deep sounds which intersect that part of the island, it is still

found in considerable numbers, inhabiting the dry spurs of hills or

flats near the banks of rivers, where the trees are high, and the

forest comparatively free from fern or underwood.

The first place where it was obtained was on a hill nearly 4000

feet above the level of the sea. It was also found living in commu-

nities on flats near the mouths of rivers close to the sea. In these

places its tracks were to be seen resembling footpaths made by man,

and leading us at first to imagine that there must be natives in the

neighbourhood. The tracks are about a foot wide, regularly pressed

down to the edges, which are two or three inches deep amongst the

moss, and cross each other usually at right angles.

The Kakapo lives in holes under the roots of trees, and is also oc-

easionally found under shelving rocks. The roots of many New

Zealand trees growing partly above ground, holes are common under

them; but where the Kakapo is found many of the holes appeared

to have been enlarged, although no earth was ever found thrown out

near them. There were frequently two openings to these holes, and

occasionally, though rarely, the trees over them were hollow for some

distance up.

The only occasion on which the Kakapo was seen to fly was when

it got up one of these hollow trees and was driven to an exit higher

up. The flight was very short, the wings being scarcely moved ; and

the bird alighted on a tree at a lower level than the place from whence

it had come, but soon got higher up by climbing, using its tail to

assist 1t.

Except when driven from its holes, the Kakapo is never seen du-

ring the day, and it was only by the assistance of dogs that we were

enabled to find it.

Before dogs became common, and when the bird was plentiful in

inhabited parts of the islands, the natives were in the habit of catch-

ing it at night, using torches to confuse it. It offers a formidable

resistance to a dog, and sometimes inflicts severe wounds with its

powerful claws and beak. At a very recent peried it was common

all over the west coast of the Middle Island, but there is now a race

of wild dogs said to have overrun all the northern part of this shore,

and to have almost extirpated the Kakapos wherever they have

reached. Their range is said to be at present confined by a river or

some such physical obstruction, and it is to be feared that if they

once succeed in gaining the stronghold of the Kakapo (the S.W. end

of the island) the bird may soon become extinct.

During the latter half of February and the first half of March,

whilst we were amongst the haunts of these birds, we found young

ones in many of the holes, frequently only one, never more than two,

in the same hole. In one case where there were two young ones I

found also an addled egg. There was usually, but not always, an old

bird in the same hole with the young ones. r

304 Zoological Society.

They build no nest, but simply scrape a slight hollow amongst

the dry dust formed of decayed wood. The young were of dif-

ferent ages, some being nearly fully fledged, and others covered only

with down. The egg is white and about the size of a pigeon’s.

The cry of the Kakapo is a hoarse croak, varied occasionally by a

discordant shriek when irritated or hungry. The Maories say that

during winter they assemble together in large numbers im caves, and

at the times of meeting, and, again before dispersing to their summer

haunts, that the noise they make is perfectly deafening.

A good many young ones were brought on board the ship alive.

Most of them died a few days afterwards, probably from want of

sufficient care; some died after being kept a month or two, and the

legs of others became deformed after they had been a few weeks in

captivity. The cause of the deformity was supposed to be the want

of proper food, and too close confinement. They were fed chiefly on

soaked bread, oatmeal and water, and boiled potatoes. When let

loose in a garden they would eat lettuces, cabbages and grass, and

would taste almost every green leaf that they came across. One,

which I brought within six hundred miles of England (when it was

accidentally killed), whilst at Sydney, ate eagerly of the leaves of a

Banksia and several species of Eucalyptus, as well as grass, appearing

to prefer them all to its usual diet of bread and water. It was also

very fond of nuts and almonds, and during the latter part of the

homeward voyage lived almost entirely on Brazilian ground-nuts.

On several occasions the bird took sullen fits, durmg which it

would eat nothing for two or three days at a time, screaming and

defending itself with its beak when any one attempted to touch it.

It was at all times of an uncertain temper, sometimes biting severely

when such a thing was least expected. It appeared to be always in

the best humour when first taken out of its box in the morning,

hooking on eagerly with its upper mandible to the finger held down

to lift it out. As soon as it was placed on the deck it would attack

the first object which attracted its attention—sometimes the leg of

my trowsers, sometimes a slipper or a boot. Of the latter it was

particularly fond: it would nestle down upon it, flappmg its wings

and showing every symptom of pleasure. It would then get up, rub

against it with its sides, and roll upon it on its back, striking out

with its feet whilst in this position.

One of these birds, sent on shore by Capt. Stokes to the care of

Major Murray of the 65th Regiment at Wellington, was allowed to

run about his garden, where it was fond of the society of the chil-

dren, following them like a dog wherever they went.

Nearly all the adult Kakapos which I skinned were exceedingly

fat, having a thick layer of oily fat or blubber on the breast which it

was very difficult to separate from the skin. Their stomachs con-

tained a pale green, sometimes almost white, homogeneous mass,

without any trace of fibre in it.

There can be little doubt but that their food consists partly of

roots (their beaks are usually more or less covered with indurated

mud), and partly of the leaves and tender shoots of various plants.

Loological Society. 305

At one place where the birds were numerous we observed that the

young shoots of a leguminous shrub growing by the banks of a river

were all nipped off, and this was said by our pilot, who had fre-

quented these places for many years in a whaling vessel, to be the

work of the Kakapo.

Their flesh is white, and is generally esteemed good eating.

March 23, 1852.—Professor Owen, F.R.S., Vice-President,

in the Chair.

On THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS SERICINUS.

By G. R. Gray, F.L.S., F.Z.S. etc.

In the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London for

1851 (p. 173), Mr. Westwood established a Lepidopterous genus

under the name of Sericinus, which he founded on bad specimens of

an insect sent from Shanghai by Mr. R. Fortune, and then supposed

to comprise “‘both sexes” of the insect figured by Donovan in his

‘Insects of China,’ pl. 27. f. 1, under the appellation of Papilio

Telamon, no specimen of which, as Mr. Westwood justly observed,

was then known to exist “in any continental or British collections.”

Lately Mr. Fortune has returned to this country, bringing with

him many specimens of the same insect in a more perfect state, which

enables me to take up the genus and endeavour to define the species

and give characters for each. I should state, however, that I think

I shall be able to point out that these “two sexes’’ are, in fact,

distiet species of the genus.

I think it best, first, to give a description of the species figured by

Donovan under the name of Papilio Telamon, but which will now

stand under that of

Srericinus TELAMON, Westw.

The fore wings yellowish white, with the anterior and most of the

exterior margins rather broadly edged with black; an abbreviated

line in the middle, another at the anterior part of the costal area,

and then a curved line of irregular spots, which ends towards the

posterior angle, and with two small spots at the anterior angle near

the outer margin, also one spot on the inner margin, black. The

hind wings yellowish white, with the anal angle black, which appa-

rently extends towards the anterior margin by two oblong spots of

the same colour; the anal angle is ornamented by a crimson line

that reaches to the third nervure from the inner margin ; there are

also three pale blue lunes. The under surface of the fore wings is

very similar to the upper side, except that the black which surrounds

the anterior and part of the exterior margins is not apparent. The

under surface of the hind wings is also similar to the upper side,

except that the spot of the anterior margin is ornamented by a crim-

son centre.

Donovan informs us that the ‘only specimen brought to Europe

was taken near Pekin, by a gentleman in the suite of Earl Macart-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 20

306 Zoological Society.

ney, and was at that time, when Donovan figured it, in the possession

of Mr. Francillon.

Having thus recorded the peculiarities of the species which must

be considered the type of this genus, I shall now point out how one

series of specimens brought by Mr. Fortune differ from it, though

in general they are very similar to the one just described. Yet the

uniformity of all the specimens of the series, which comes nearest to

Donovan’s figure, induces me, provisionally at least, to form it into

a separate species, under the name of

Srricinus Montera*. (Cat. of Lepid. B. M. i. 78. pl. 13.

fig: 1,2.)

Like the preceding ; but the fore wings have a large subtriangular

black spot very near the base, which is divided into three spots by

the nervures. The anterior margin is slightly edged, and the ex-

terior margin is, for most part, broadly margined with black. The

hind wings have a broad band obliquely across the costal area, and

the crimson band at the anal angle appears broader in this species.

The species is always, as Mr. Fortune has kindly informed me,

found in the valleys among the hills.

Sericinus Forrunert. (Cat. Lep. B. M.i. pl. 13. fig. 5.)°

The fore wings are yellowish white, with many irregular black

spots which vary in size, some of them so placed that they apparently

form five bands across the wing; the external margin is also black.

The hind wings also yellowish white, with a basal band and three

irregular curved bands of black spots ; the second band from the base

is broadest at the anterior angle, and marked with a small crimson

spot; while that portion towards the anal angle is margined exteriorly

by an irregular crimson band, which extends from the angle to the

fifth nervure ; the third or marginal band is ornamented on the deep

black below the crimson by a series of pale blue lunes. The under

surfaces of all the wings are less promimently marked, otherwise they

are similar to the upper side, except that on the fore wings there are

two crimson spots, one on the band near the costal area and the other

on the posterior margin.

This species is found, according to Mr. Fortune, on the sides of

the hills.

Mr. Wilson Saunders has obliged me by the loan of a specimen

for examination, which presents several differences from those pre-

viously noticed. It is rather smaller and the caudal appendages are

shorter than in the other three species ; the latter being only about

half an inch in length. These with other characters induce me to

form it into a species under the name of

* Sericinus Telamon, Westw. & Hewits. Gen. Diurnal Lep. p. 530 suppl. pl. 1.

fig. 1.

+ Sericinus fasciatus, Brem. & Grey, Beitr. Schm. des Nord. China, p.5. Since

this paper was read, Mr. Fortune has sent a series of specimens which show that

this is the female of the preceding.

Zoological Society. 307

Sericrnus Tenrmona*. (Cat. Lep. B. M. i. pl. 13. fig. 3.)

The fore wings ochraceous, with the base black, and the other

black markings placed as in S. Montela, though not quite so

prominent, An the short band which crosses the wing just beyond

the costal area and the spot on the posterior margin are both orna-

mented with a small crimson spot. The hind wings have the inner

margin black, and are without the basal spot in the costal area; the

crimson band at the anal angle extends, as in S. Fortune, to the

fifth nervure, and like it also the spot on the anterior margin is orna-

mented by a crimson mark, which is more equally placed with the

commencement of the crimson band that advances to the anal angle,

than in the other species; the black space at the anal angle is less

in size, but is furnished with blue lunes. The under surface of the

fore wings is marked like the upper side. That of the hind wings is

also similar to the upper side, but the black spots on the anterior

margin are both ornamented with crimson ; the lengthened crimson

band is marked between the second and third nervures from the anal

angle with a white lune, and there is also a less quantity of black at

the anal angle.

This species (male) was also brought to this country with the others

by Mr. Fortune, through whose exertions we are thus enabled to de-

scribe three additional species of a division which had been hitherto

only known by the one figured by Donovan.

Notres ON THE DISSECTION OF A SPECIES OF GALAGO. By

W. H. Frower, Curator To THe Mippiesex Hospirar

Museum.

_ Having recently had an opportunity of examining the body of a

Galago which died in the Society’s Gardens, and which I believe to

be an undescribed species, I proceed, at the request of the Secretary,

to lay before the Society some notes on its anatomy made during the

dissection.

The animal was a male. When I received it the skin was removed,

and its dimensions were as follows :—

Nes eh.

Length of the head and eae baa 2 boat ip ae

of the tail . ‘ Nr ER oe: ALTER 05 Sta

—_— of the Rene y Zz

Breadth of the head (at fhe Hess part, 7 Viz. ee

MULE ONOS eli niles Site ped ty ee 2 : | Neca)

Hence Oli Re BMMETUS fo. <5 os as, e.s nits;

—— of the fore-arm .... 2 Vi

—_ of the hand . 1 0

———— @f the femur...... a, 0

Of Che Dilly | ti... cnsae awoke ces ie ns oA

Ofte tOUbeee ras tee eae Sen

Dentition :—ine. a3 can. ae ; mol. = 34.

* The female of this species is described as Sericinus Greyi, Brem. & Grey,

Beitr. Schm. des Nord. China, p. 6.

20%

508 Zoological Society.

The upper incisors very small, placed vertically, a considerable space

existing between the two middle ones, The lower incisors long, very

narrow, projecting horizontally, and closely approximated.

The stomach was simple, almost globular in form; the cesophagus

entered far to the right, the cardiac orifice very nearly approachivg

the pyloric, so that while the greater curvature measured 65 inches,

the lesser was but 3 of an inch. The small intestines were wide,

46 inches in length. The caecum was nearly 5 inches long, wider

near its commencement than any part of the intestine, and slightly

sacculated, but tapering and becoming smooth towards the extremity.

The ileum entered thecolon at avery obtuseangle, andthere wassearcely

any difference in the calibre of these two parts of the intestine. The

colon was without sacculations and peculiar in form, being widest at

the upper end, then gradually contracting till it became narrower

than any part of the intestine, and dilating again into the rectum;

and this appeared not to be the result of muscular contraction, as it

retained this form after macerating in water several days and then

inflating. The length of this part of the intestine, from the ileo-ceecal

valve to the anus, was 18 inches.

The liver presented three very distinct lobes: the left one was en-

tire; the middle cleft into three by two fissures on its under surface,

in one of which (that most to the right) the gall-bladder was placed ;

the right lobe was entire, but on its under surface was placed the

lobulus Spigeli.

The gall-bladder was pyriform ; the duct, 3 lines in length, join-

ing the hepatic duct, formed the common gall-duct, which was half

an inch long and entered the duodenum one inch from the pylorus.

The spleen was long, narrow and flattened, half an inch wide at the

broadest part, and 24 inches in length.

The kidneys, simple, large and oval, were 1 inch long and 8 lines

broad; the right one situated nearly the whole length of the kidney

higher than the left.

The penis was 3 inches in length, containmg a bone 11 lines long.

The skin of the glans covered with minute spines or tubercles, which,

when examined microscopically, were found to be tooth-like bodies,

most having two points, some one, others three or more, all directed

backwards.

The testes were oval, 8 lines long, 5 broad.

The vesiculee seminales consisted of two large simple culs-de-sac,

7 lines in length.

On opening the thorax the left lung was found to have two lobes,

the right four.

The heart presented nothing unusual. From the arch of the aorta

two large vessels arose, the first giving rise to the innominate and left

carotid ; the second being the left subclavian.

On examining the brachial and femoral arteries, no division into

smaller trunks, forming a rete mirabile, as is observed in several

animals belonging to this family, was discovered. The brachial artery

perforated the humerus near its lower extremity.

The tongue was long and narrow, 24 inches long from the root of

Linnean Society. U8

the epiglottis to the tip, and 5 lines broad. Its dorsal surface was

covered with small papillee, and at the posterior part were three large

or circumvallated papillee, arranged as the points of the letter V. On

the under surface is a curious body, 7 lines long and 3 wide, the tip

of which is free, flat and pectinated, the rest free at the sides and at-

tached in the middle. From the form, position and size of this singular

organ, one cannot help conjecturing that the pectinated end may act

as a brush to free the inferior incisor teeth from adherent particles of

the insect food on which the animal subsists.

The submaxillary and parotid glands were very large, particularly

the former.

The masseter and temporal muscles were largely developed, and

the whole muscles of the upper extremity very powerful.

The cerebral hemispheres were large, and extending some way

back over the cerebellum, but their surface was remarkably smocth

and almost free from convolutions, resembling in this respect the

brain of Cheiroptera, to which order the Lemurs present several

points of affinity.

LINNAAN SOCIETY.

January 17th, 1854.—Robert Brown, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

Read a letter from David Moore, Esq., A.L.S., of the Botanic

Garden, Glasnevin, near Dublin, addressed to James Yates, Esq.,

F.L.S., &c. ‘‘ On the introduction of Anacharis Alsinastrum, Bab.

into Ireland.”

“It is rather remarkable,’ Mr. Moore observes, “that it should

have been noticed in England and in Ireland about the same time. I

am not perfectly certain now, but I think it was in the early part of

1842 I first saw the plant growing in a small pond in the garden of

Isaac M. D’Olier, Esq., of Booterstown, near Dublin. That gentle-

man has been long known for his zeal in horticultural pursuits, as

well as for his fine collection of exotic plants, which he has been in

the habit of getting from various parts of England, as well as from

the continent, along with some of which he considers the Anacharis

was introduced to his collection, though he has no knowledge of its

being so. At the time stated, Mr. D’Olier acted as Chairman of the

Committee of Botany for the Royal Dublin Society, which caused

me to have frequent official intercourse with him, and for which

purpose I occasionally went to Booterstown. In the centre of his

garden, where a number of gold and silver fish were kept in a small

pond, we first noticed the Anacharis. I did not then know the

plant, further than that it was not a British species, and brought

some of it to cultivate in the Botanic Garden, where it was placed

in an earthenware crock and put in the pond. Little more was

thought about it, until the late Mr. Macauley brought it from the

pond in Mr. D’Olier’s garden to the College garden, about the time

Inquiry was awakened respecting it in England. My foreman then

told me there was plenty of it growing in our pond, which I had not

310 Linnean Society.

before noticed, but I had no doubt, on inquiry, of this being the

increase of the few plants I first brought from Booterstown. In the

way then I have stated, the Anacharis made its appearance in this

neighbourhood, where I believe it is still confined: I have not seen

or heard ot its being elsewhere in Ireland, though it increases

equally fast here as it does in England. There are now some

millions of plants in our pond, and as many more destroyed since it

was first introduced.”

Read also, some observations ‘‘On the correctness of the position

assigned to Oxycladus in the Family of Bignoniacee.” By John

Miers, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

Mr. Miers states, that after a careful consideration of the argu-

ments advanced at the last Meeting by Dr. Seemann, he sees no

reason to alter his conviction as to the proper position of the genus

in question. Dr. Seemann contends that Oxyc/adus is too anomalous

in form to be admitted among Bignoniacee on account of its fruit,

which is a hard monospermous nut, with the seed suspended from

near the summit of the cell, and of its embryo, which has large

fleshy cotyledons, while there are no wings developed on the testa ;

and maintains that on these grounds it rather belongs to Myoporacee,

with which family it agrees better in habit, having broom-like branches

terminating in a spine, and especially with the genus Bontia, with

which it agrees in its hard nut, and which it approaches in the

country of its origin. Mr. Miers on the other hand believes that it

is easy to oppose to these arguments a number of facts, showing

that Oxycladus presents far greater discrepancies in relation to the

Myoporacee than to the Bignoniacee. In Myoporacee, in nearly

all cases, the leaves are alternate; the flowers have always didyna-

mous stamens, without any rudiment of a fifth; the ovarium is only

bilocular in two instances, which he has elsewhere shown (Ann. Nat.

Hist. 2nd Ser. xi. 439) are doubtful, or at least abnormal genera

of the order; in nine other genera the ovarium is distinctly four-

celled, with a single ovule suspended from the apex of each cell, and

this ripens into a four-celled ligneous indehiscent nut, with a seed

in each cell. The only remaining case is Bontia, which differs

from all others of this family in having originally a bilocular ova-

rium, but where by the subsequent growth and inflexion of the

placente, eight pseudo-cells are produced, each with a single sus-

pended ovule. ‘This ripens into a hard indehiscent eight-celled nut,

each cell producing a single seed, with a thick osseous testa, which

is often confluent with the sides of the cell. Mr. Miers’s knowledge

of this genus is derived wholly from the descriptions of authors, and

he finds no observations of a more recent date than those of Gaertner

and Jacquin; our evidence of its real structure is therefore imperfect,

but enough is recorded to show that it is a very anomalous form, if

it really belong to the Myoporacee. It is a large tree, 30 feet

high, has a trunk 2 feet in diameter, with a large head of thick

foliage; its leaves are always alternate, somewhat serrated, marked

with transparent dots, and have an acrimonious taste. Bontia occurs

Linnean Sociely. — 311

in the West Indies, while all other species of Myoporacee are

found in Australia, in Asia, or in the islands of the Pacific bordering

on that continent.

The author next proceeded to indicate those points of structure in

Oxycladus which establish the relative -value of its affinity to the

Myoporacee, or the Bignoniacee. In this genus, both the branches

and rudimentary leaves are distinctly opposite, as in Bignoniacce, in

which family we find two other genera, where the branches terminate

in spines, viz. Catophractes and Rhigozum: the flowers are bluish,

a colour not met with in Myoporacee; they present a sterile fifth

stamen, a circumstance almost constant in Bignoniacee, and never

seen in Myoporacee; the anther-cells are distinct, and widely divari-

cated upon a large fleshy connective, as in Bignoniacee, not oscil-

latory, lunulate, and opening by a hippocrepiform fissure, and there-

fore almost one-celled, as in Myoporacee; the ovarium is seated upon

a five-lobed fleshy disk, which never occurs in the latter family, though

constant in Bignoniacee ; it is completely bilocular, with about six

ovules in each cell, suspended and attached by a ventral thread to a

distinct flat dissepiment, and arranged in three superimposed pairs

upon its opposite faces, in two lines parallel with the axis, a structure

which offers a marked character in the Bignoniacez, and unknown

in the Myoporacee ; of these twelve ovules, all become abortive

with the exception of one; the fruit is therefore 1-locular and mo-

nospermous, presenting an osseous nut, with four deep furrows in

the apex, and divisible to the base along these striz into four valves,

two of these sutures being more easily separable, and always corre-

sponding with the margin of the persistent dissepiment, which is

pressed against one side, and which distinctly exhibits on both faces

its several abortive ovules, the ripened seed filling the whole capacity

of the nut. In Myoporacee, whether the nut be 4-celled, or by abor-

tion 2-locular, the intervening space is always solid, and perfectly

indehiscent, leaving small circular cells, surrounded by thick

ligneous walls, without showing any marks of division; there is no

analogy whatever between this structure and that of Ozycladus.

The absence of the alary expansion of the testa, so common in

Bignoniacee, is urged as a reason for excluding this genus from that

family, but the argument is not valid, where as in Ovycladus only

one of the ovules becomes impregnated, and where it is thus left at

full liberty to acquire the size and shape of the whole space of the

cell. The want of wings in the seeds occurs however in other

Bignoniaceous plants; for instance in Spathodea of Palisot de

Beauvois, from which all the species from the New World referred

to that genus have been rightly separated by Chamisso under the

name of Dolichandra. Mr. Miers has also found in Brazil another

Bignoniaceous genus, Adenocalymna, the carpological characters of

which are yet undescribed, which has a cylindrical, capsular, 2-celled

fruit, containing several large, thick, angular seeds, attached by a

large hilum to the broad dissepiment, and without wings. In

Argylia the seeds are likewise apterous. The last consideration as

regards Oxycladus is not the least important ; its seeds are exalbu-

312 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

minous, as in Bignoniacee, whereas in those of the Myoporacee the

embryo is always contained within albumen.

After the comparison of these several circumstances, the author is

unable to perceive the existence of any marked affinity between

Oxycladus and any genus of the Myoporacee, and therefore sees no

reason to alter the conclusion at which he formerly arrived, that this

genus, although deviating from the usual form of its fruit and seed,

bears in every essential respect all the characteristic features of a

member of the family of the Bignoniacee. It is not however in the

singularity of the large fleshy cotyledons, or the wingless state of

the seed, that Oxycladus is remarkable, for Mr. Miers has shown

that these occur in other genera of the Bignoniacee; its peculiarity

consists in the development of only one of its many ovules, and in

the shape of its cotyledons, which in most other instances are

deeply cordate, or almost bipartite at each extremity, with the

radicle placed between the lobes: in this genus, however, they are

entire, oval, and plano-convex; in Rhigozum they are likewise

fleshy, orbicular, and entire.

The limits of many genera of Bignoniacee appear, Mr. Miers

adds, ill-defined, and the characters derivable from the seeds much

neglected. Fenzl and DeCandolle have done much in extending

our knowledge of the family, but the subject still requires farther

investigation, for he has observed many singular deviations from

recorded structure that have not yet been noticed. Should it be

found desirable to class Rhigozum with Oxyciadus, the character

suggested for this tribe in his former paper would require modifica-

tion. In that of the Crescentiece, this name ought to be suppressed,

and that of Yaneciee substituted, with the same character there

indicated : all the genera of this section of DeCandolle’s Prodromus

strictly coincide with the Bignoniacee in their completely 2-locular

ovarium, and in the development of their ovules on the surface of

the dissepiment, and they agree also with the genus Bignonia in the

form of their embryo: Crescentia and Kigelia, however, present

characters wholly at variance with the Order, because of their

parietal placentation. He is not, however, persuaded of the pro-

priety of establishing a separate order for these two genera, which

has been done upon high authority, when they might so well form a

good tribe of the Cyrtandracee. Crescentia, with its large amygdaloid

embryo, «oes not differ more widely from the Cyrtandracee, than

Adenocalymna does from Bignonia: in habit and in floral structure

the two last-mentioned genera are scarcely distinguishable.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

July 13, 1854.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “Notice of a new species of Caulerpa,” by R. K. Greville,

LL.D. &c. This paper will be found in the ‘ Annals’ for September,

and in the Society’s Transactions.

Professor Edward Forbes remarked, that the plant resembled

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 313

the marine Caulerpites more than any other described by Brongniart.

The genus was interesting, as embracing the Prasium of Aristotle,

which, until recently translated either a Leek or an Onion, was now

known to be Caulerpa prolifera, a Mediterranean species.

2. ‘On the Analogy between the Processes of Reproduction in the

Plant and in the Hydroid Zoophyte,’’ by Professor Wyville Thom-

son. Dr. Thomson stated that the term ‘ Zoophyte”’ had been ori-

ginally applied to indicate an intermediate position which these beings

were supposed to hold between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ;

that subsequently their animal nature had been completely made

out; and that the old term Zoophyte had then only been retained as

an innocent remnant of the superstition of those dark ages; that

latterly, however, some strange analogies had been made out between

the mode of growth of Zoophytes and of the higher tribes of plants,

which seemed to indicate that they had some right to their old desig-

nation ; that when there was a strong tendency, as in Zoophytes and

in Plants, to the indefinite multiplication of similar parts, there was

a tendency likewise to the development of these parts according to

the same laws. He alluded to the union in these indefinitely repeated

parts of the functions of respiration and assimilation in both tribes ;

to the tendency to spiral arrangement of parts of the polypidom ; and

to the formation of corpuscles bearing ova, and which are due to the

modification or compression of ordinary branches with their buds.

Dr. Thomson said that he had had opportunities of observing the

process of reproduction in several species of the genus Campanularia ;

he described the peculiar reproductive process im this family, which

has been called an “alternation of generations,” and alluded to the

discovery by Schultze of male individuals of the various species form-

ing capsules containing spermatozoids. He believed that he had

been able to make out distinctly three varieties in the development of

the medusoids in three species of Campanularia (gelatinosa, geni-

culata, and volubilis). In the first, the capsule of the female indi-

vidual first appears with a free hollow rod in the centre, like the free

central placenta in the Primulacee. This rod is covered by a par-

tially developed membrane. After a time, a round mass pullulates

from this rod beneath this membrane. A communication at first

exists between the canal in the centre of the rod, and this globe;

this communication is at length closed up, and the projection assumes

the form of a true ovarian ovum with a distinct germinal vesicle.

The germinal vesicle then disappears, and is gradually replaced by

a mass of embryo cells. This mass shows very well the usual process

of merismatic division. It afterwards becomes developed into a free

ciliated embryo, which fixes closely to a solid body and is quickly

developed into a polyp. ‘The contents of the male capsules are

formed almost in a like manner, only the original spherical bodies

become filled with a substance resembling fovilla, which escapes into

the water, without any secondary embryonic formation. In the

second species, the embryo is not developed in the capsule, but a

mass which Dr. Thomson regarded as homologous with the “ ovum”

in the former species, is extended from the mouth of the capsule, in

514 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

the form of a half-developed medusoid, never becoming detached,

but forming the embryo in that position. In the third species, the

medusoid was completely developed, and escaped freely into the

water. Certain points of resemblance, and their single mode of

origin, left no doubt in his mind that the medusoids in the case of

C. volubilis were only a more highly developed form of the “ ova’

observed in C. gelatinosa, the extreme forms connected by the unde-

veloped medusoids of C. geniculata. It is possible that these three

forms of reproduction may not be characteristic of the three species,

but may be common to them all under certain modifying cireum-

stances. Dr. Thomson then mentioned the distinction so broadly

drawn between the ‘‘ovum,” the product of the true generative

process, and the gemma or bud. He suggested that the ovum might

be perhaps considered more properly a gemma separated from the

parent, and capable of attaming a greater or less development, and

that the definition now generally ‘applied to the ovum might be

attached to the embryo in its early stages.

The conclusions to which the author seemed inclined to arrive,

were,—1. That the medusoids were, in their least developed form,

closely allied to the ovarian ovum in the higher animals.

2. That these medusoids, thus resembling the ovarian ovum, might

be considered as being produced by a process of gemmation from the

parent, and that as free gemmee they had the power of pee a

considerable degree of development in some species.

ow That these medusoids closely resembled the ovules in plants in

their structure and in their mode of development, and that, like ovules,

they were sometimes entirely absorbed by the growing embryo while

within their capsule, and were sometimes extruded from the capsule

when the embryo was extremely small (or even before impregnation’).

This property they of course possess in common with the ovarian

ovum in higher tribes.

Dr. G. Johnston of Berwick stated, that he differed from Dr.

Thomson in regarding the development and reproduction of Zoophytes

as indicating an analogy with these processes in plants.

Professor Edward Forbes said, that Dr. Thomson’s paper referred

to some of the most debateable points in zoology, and that this was

not the place to discuss them. He thought that Dr. Thomson had

not kept in view the difference between “analogy and homology, in

drawing a comparison between the zoophyte and the plant.

att Notes of a Tour in Switzerland,” by John Sibbald, Esq.

4. “Notice of the Discovery of Hierochloé borealis, near Thurso,”

by Robert Dick, Esq. Mr. Dick stated, that at “about ten minutes’

walk from the town of Thurso, there is, by the river-side, a farm-

house known by the name of the Bleachfield, opposite to which, on

the eastern bank of the river, there is a precipitous section of boulder

clay ; opposite to the clay cliff, and fringing the edge of the stream,

any botanist can, in the last week of the month at May, or in the

first and second weeks of June, gather 50 or 100 specimens of Hiero-

chloé borealis. Passing upwards along the river bank, and at no

great distance, there is another clay cliff, where a few hundreds of

Miscellaneous. 315

Mierochloé may likewise be got. It also fringes the edge of the

river. But the plant must be looked for at the time indicated ; for

by the third week of June, the beauty of Hierochloé has passed away,

and by the first week of July the herbage has become so rank, that

the Holy Grass, now ripe, and turned of a silky brown, is completely

hidden from view. Farther up, between Geize and a section of

boulder clay a little below Todholes, the plant may likewise be picked

in hundreds. Hieroch/oé has never failed to appear in these localities

for twenty years.”

5. “On the oeeurrence of ‘Cinchonaceous Glands’ in Galiacee, and

on the relations of that Order to Cinchonacee,”’ by Mr. G. Lawson.

This paper will be found in the ‘ Annals’ for September, and in the

Society’s Transactions.

6. ‘‘ Notes of a Trip to Inchkeith and Inchcolm,” by Professor

Balfour. The Professor found upon Inchkeith 132 flowering plants

and 6 ferns; on Inchcolm he saw 160 of the former class of plants

and 4 of the latter.

The following were the principal plants found on Inchkeith :—

Sinapis nigra, Cochlearia danica, Geranium pratense, Conium macu-

latum, Haloscias scoticum, Sambucus (nigra var.) laciniata, Silybum

marianum, Carduus acanthoides, Senecio viscosus, Hyoscyamus niger,

Linaria Cymbalaria, Marrubium vulgare, Habenaria viridis, Carex

distans and vulpina, and Sclerochloa maritima.

On Incheolm :—Cochlearta danica, Papaver somniferum, Cheiran-

thus Cheiri, Dipsacus sylvestris, Haloscias scoticum, Hyoscyamus

niger, and Parictaria erecta.

7. ‘Observations on the Morphology of Pines,’’ by Professor

~M‘Cosh.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Ceenurus cerebralis of the Sheep. By Dr. KicHENMEISTER*.

On the 6th January 1854, at 8 o’clock in the evening, and on the

7th January, at 11 o'clock in the forenoon, I gave some mature pro-

glottides of the Tenia ceenurus of the dog to six lambs of from six

to nine months old, taken from three different flocks, which were not

subject to vertigo. On the 20th January, the animals exhibited the

first symptoms of vertigo. They were then successively killed, and

presented the following phenomena on examination.

On the seventeenth day after mtroduction, from twenty to thirty

vesicles (Cenuri) inhabited the surface of the brain ; the substance

of the orain was hollowed into galleries, as though a Sarcopfes had

been forming its passage; the vesicles were still free and without

envelopes, and of the size of a grain of millet.

* The experments here detailed were made previously to those of

Prof. Van Beneden, of which we gave a notice in our last Number. The

proglottides employed by the learned Professor of Louvain, were derived

from Tzenias produced from the Cenuri obtained in these experiments of

Dr. Kiichenmeister.

316 Miscellaneous.

On the twenty-fifth day the vesicles were larger. On the twenty-

sixth day they were of the size of a lentil; the envelope began to be

formed and the first traces of heads appeared.

On the thirtieth day, the heads, under the form of tubercles, were

visible to the naked eye. On the thirty-eighth day the eminences

appeared more distinctly on the surface, aud the heads exhibited signs

of their suckers and hooks. Towards the forty-fifth day the Caenurt

were of the size of a bean, and the cavities in which the heads are

lodged were formed.

Besides the brain, the heart, the cesophagus, and the diaphragm

of some of the lambs also contained encysted vesicles ; but these are

not the Cysticercus tenuicollis, as I was at first inclined to think with

M. Leuckart,—they are strayed and aborted worms.

The following is the result to which my researches have led :—The

adult Canuri live and become developed in the intestine of the dog,

forming the Tenia ccenurus, which has hitherto been confounded

with the Tenia serrata.

The malady known as the turn-sick, staggers or vertigo 1s propa-

gated in the following manner :—The shepherds cut off the heads

of the sheep affected with this disease and throw them to the dogs,

which swallow the Cenuri along with the brain, and these Cenurt

give rise to Tzenias in their intestines. As the Cenuri sometimes bear

as many as 300 heads, and each head (scolew) can produce a Tenia,

it will be easily imagined that these worms must multiply with great

rapidity.

The dogs following the sheep in the meadows, pass the proglottides

filled with eggs along with their excrements ; and these eggs are thus

scattered over the herbage upon which the sheep feed.

Moist meadows are most favourable to the development of the

malady, as the proglottides and eggs dry there more slowly.—Bull.

del Acad. Royale de Belgique, 1854, p. 306.

On the Occurrence of Zine in the Vegetable Organisn.

By A. Braun.

It is well known that the calamine hills of Rhenish Prussia and

the neighbouring parts of Belgium possess a peculiar flora; visitors

to these regions are particularly surprised by a species of violet

allied to Viola tricolor, which unfolds its beautiful yellow flowers in

uninterrupted profusion from spring until the end of autumn, and is

known in the neighbourhood of Aix as the Calamine violet, or in

the dialect of the district ‘‘ Kelmesveilchen.” ‘This plant has been

described by Lejeune in his ‘‘ Revue de la Flore de Spaa” as a

distinct species under the name of Viola calaminaria, but he has

since characterized it (Comp. Flore Belgice) as Viola lutea, Smith.

Koch and other authors have also rightly considered it as a variety

of V. lutea, Smith (grandiflora, Huds.), a species principally distin-

guished from V. tricolor by its filiform subterraneous runners, by

means of which it survives the winter. In its habits it is remarkably

distinct from the ordinary Viola lutea of the Alps, as well as from

Miscellaneous. 317

the form of this plant occurring on the higher Vosges on granitic

and syenitic soils (described by Spach as Viola elegans); its stem

being more procumbent and repeatedly branched at the base, and

the flowers being generally smaller. I will not, however, express

any further opinion as to whether this violet may or may not bea

distinct species, for the violets of the same group as JV. tricolor pre-

sent so many difficulties to systematic botanists in consequence of

their extraordinary variability, that it is difficult to find the middle

course between the union of them all under one name, and the

establishment of a multitude of species. Many other plants grow

in company with the Viola calaminaria, which, aithough in this

district peculiar to the calamine hills, nevertheless grow in other

localities in soil free from calamine.

The colour of the flowers of the Viola lutea of the Alps and

Vosges varies from the darkest violet to the purest yellow, whilst

the flowers of V. calaminaria, at least in the neighbourhood of Aix,

are almost always yellow. On the borders of the calamine district

specimens are met with here and there with pale violet, or bluish, or

mixed blue and yellow flowers, which have been regarded by Kalten-

bach as hybrids between this plant and the V. tricolor, which cer-

tainly occur on cultivated land in the neighbourhood. But I have

also seen a specimen of the true V. calaminaria from the calamine

region of Westphalia which is of a dark violet colour. The plant

when cultivated in gardens is said to change and become like the

common V. tricolor.

The connexion between the occurrence of the V. calaminaria and

the presence of calamine in the soil, which is so constant that even

mining experiments have been undertaken with good results from

the indications furnished by this plant, induced me, when in Aix, to

urge M. Victor Monheim of that place, to examine the plant

especially with reference to its containing zinc. He afterwards

sent me the following account of a chemical investigation of the

plant, performed in his laboratory and under his eye, by M. F. Bel-

lingrodt, which I give in the latter gentleman’s own words :—

‘“The plants, some of which were still in flower, were collected

in the month of October on the Altenberg and in the immediate

neighbourhood of its large zinc works. ‘lo get rid of adhering

earth completely, the fresh, uncut herbage with the roots was

washed with water, until, when macerated for sixteen or eighteen

hours with water containing muriatic acid, it gave no inorganic

matter to the dilute acid. ‘The whole was then finely chopped and

digested on the vapour-bath for twelve hours with water and mu-

riatic acid; the vegetable matter was separated from the extract,

and this treated with chlorate of potash. The addition of an excess

of ammonia to the decolorized extract, now produced a precipitation

of alumina, organic substances, and partially of the iron.

“The precipitate produced in the filtrate by sulphuret of ammo-

nium was dissolved in muriatic acid, oxidized by nitric acid, and

the iron then completely separated by ammonia. A portion of the

318 Miscellaneous.

filtered fluid was boiled with solution of potash, when traces of man-

ganese were precipitated. Solution of sulphuretted hydrogen then

rendered the presence of zine in the filtrate quite evident.

“Another portion of the fluid filtered from the iron precipitate

was precipitated at once by sulphuret of ammonium, the dried pre-

cipitate calcined in a platinum crucible, moistened with nitric acid,

again calcined, and then treated with dilute acetic acid; the zinc

was precipitated from the solution in acetic acid by solution of

sulphuretted hydrogen.

‘** From another portion of the herb, freed from external impurities,

the juice was expressed, and the presence of zinc in this was also

distinctly proved by the above process.”

This metal must therefore be added to the eighteen elements

hitherto known to occur in the vegetable organism.. ~ —Pogeendorff” s

Annalen, vol. xcii. p. 175.

Notes on the Bovine Animals of the Malay Peninsula.

By Groree Wrnpsor WARL.

1. The Sapi, or Wild Ox of the Malay Peninsula, was scarcely

known to exist until 1850, when Dr. Oxley, and a hunting-party

from Singapore, killed a young cow on the banks of the Muah River.

He described it as 6 feet 2 ches high at the shoulder, from hoof

to dorsal vertebree ; back curved, highest about the centre. Horns

small, curved saad. white, tipped ae black. Forehead flat, with

tuft of long hair, large in the bulls. Hair smooth and silky. Colour

brown, with white about the feet. Mane 2 inches long, running along

the entire back. No dewlap. The bulls are from 7 to 7 fa feet high.

The flesh is described as delicious. Calves could be obtained with a

little trouble, but I suspect it would be difficult to get a full-grown

animal; but he would be worth something if caught.

2. The Saladang, another species of wild cattle, is even less known

than the Sapi, as no specimen has yet been shot by Europeans. It

seems to me to be a sort of Bison, or Bos Gaurus. The males are

10 feet high at the shoulder, and they are altogether fiercer and

more formidable than the Sapi, but not so graceful. In my opinion

it would be worth while for the Zoological Society to send a man out

expressly for the purpose of bringing home specimens of these two

beasts. The Muah River, where both varieties abound, would be the

best spot to seek them; and Inchi Basow, a Malay chief who takes

great delight in hunting, would soon procure live specimens of each

at a small expense.

3. The Water Buffalo does not seem to be known in England,

although it is common all over the Archipelago. The larger speci-

mens stand 7 feet at the shoulder, sometimes more. Barrel very

large. Legs short and strong, Skin black and wrinkled, and almost

hairless, like that of the Elephant. It is amphibious, and has been

known to swim across straits as wide as the Channel at Dover; in

fact, the way the head is set on the body, with the nose up, and the

Meteorological Observations. 319

horns lying along the back, shows that it is more adapted for the

water than the land, although it is an excellent draught animal, and

at Singapore supplies the place of the Elephant.

4. The Domestic Ox of Bali and Lombok, a large, sleek, thin-

skinned species, as graceful as the Antelope. This would be very

much admired in the Gardens. Specimens can be obtained at Sin-

gapore, but it would be better to get them from Lombok, whence

ships now come direct to England with cargoes of rice. Mr. Lange

of Bali Badong (merchant) would, I have no doubt, forward speci-

mens at a trifling cost.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Feb. 8, 1853.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR AUG. 1854.

Chiswick.—August 1. Cloudy: clear. 2. Clear: very fine: heavy rain at night.

3. Overcast: rain. 4. Overcast: heavy rain. 5. Rain: overcast. 6, 7. Overcast:

clear. 8. Very fine. 9. Fine: overcast: very clear at night. 10,11. Very fine.

12. Densely clouded : very clear at night. 13. Very fine. 14. Cloudy: very fine:

clear. 15. Very clear: cloudy: clear. 16. Fine: overcast. 17. Fine: rain: very

clear. 18. Fine: cloudy. 19. Very clear. 20. Cloudy and fine. 21. Overcast.

22. Cloudy and fine: clear. 23. Overcast : rather boisterous, with rain. 24. Fine:

cloudy and boisterous: fine. 25. Fine. 26. Uxceedingly fine. 27. Very fine:

overcast. 28. Very fine. 29. Very hot. 30. Cloudless and very hot, with dry

air, 31. Very fine.

Mean temperature of the month ............. sevbaaniscmeis On AE 60°-70

Mean temperature of Aug: 1853) ....0....00..s.000.csceeeosee ees 59 69

Mean temperature of Aug. for the last twenty-eight years... 62 °03

AVETASeraMOUNt OF TAM MUU Ss wesc eens cieeacies/-enresseceserss 2°47 inches.

Boston.—Aug. 1, 2. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 3. Cloudy. 4. Cloudy:

rain A.M.and p.m. 5—9. Cloudy. 10,11. Fine. 12,13. Cloudy. 14. Cloudy:

rainp.M. 15. Fine: rainep.m. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: raine.m. 18. Cloudy.

19. Fine. 20. Fine: rain. 21. Cloudy: rain a.m. 22. Fine: rain, with

thunder and lightning e.m. 23. Cloudy. 24. Fine: rainp.m. 25. Fine. 26,

27. Cloudy. 28—30. Fine. 31. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Aug. 1. Fog a.m.: drizzlerp.m. 2. Bright a.m.:

clear p.M. 3,4. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 5. Damp A.m.: drizzle p.m. 6. Cloudy

A.M.: drizzle p.m. 7. Cloudy a.m.: damp p.m. 8, 9. Cloudy a.m.: drops F.M.

10. Cloudy a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 11. Bright a.m.: bright, fine p.m. 12. Cloudy

A.M.: showers P.M. 13. Showers a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m. : rain,

thunder p.m. 15. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 16. Bright a.m.: clear p.m. 17.

Bright, fine a.m. : clear, fine p.m. 18. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy p.m. 19. Cloudy

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 83. NOVEMBER 1854.

XXIX.—Contributions to the Natural History of the Infusoria.

By A. ScHNEIDER*.

[With a Plate. ]

I. On Polytoma Uvella.

Polytoma Uvella is given by Ehrenberg as the only species of

the genus Polytoma, and characterized in the following words :—

“ Animal e familia Monadinorum, ocello destitutum, ore termi-

nali truncato, cilis aut proboscide subtili flagelliforme duplici

istructo natantibus solitariis antico, divisione spontanea decus-

sata et imperfecta, multipartitum in Mori formam enascens, dein

partitum et altera vice solitarium.” In a subsequent passage he

adds—“ With regard to its organization the polygastric ali-

mentary organs appeared distinctly. Besides these I perceived a

larger contractile vesicle, which did not belong to the nutritive

apparatus, and which appeared to be connected with the male

sexual organs. Lastly, a large, free, white spot in the anterior.

part of the body, the outline of which could not be made out

distinctly, but which pressed the stomachal sacs towards the

hinder extremity, led to the supposition that a seminal gland

existed in that place.” After repeated failures he succeeded,

but only by employing a magnifying power of 6-800 diameters,

im seeing the little sacs of the posterior portion filled with indigo.

Dujardin, apparently, has never examined Polytoma himself, as

he could not repeat Ehrenberg’s observations upon its mode of

divisiont, and I am unacquainted with any subsequent obser-

vations upon this creature.

* Translated from Miiller’s Archiv, 1854, p. 191.

+ Die Infusorien als volkommene Organismen, &c., p. 24.

{ Dujardm, Hist. Nat. Infusoires, p. 276.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 21

BIO wa iene SEN Se Se SA

ae ee ee

322 M.A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

As it appeared desirable that we should be better acquainted

with the mode of division of Polytoma, I have made a series of

observations upon this elegant creature, the results of which will

be found in the followmg pages. The material for the mvesti-

gation is easily obtained. Polk ytoma Uvella is to be met with in

every puddle, in raim-water tanks, &c., and its rapid increase

may readily be effected, by the putrefaction of animal or vege-

table matters.

Polytoma Uvella is of an oval form ; it is from 34, to 3}, of

an inch long, and about half that width. At one end, Sh,

with Ehrenberg, we will call the anterior extremity, it bears two

filaments as long or longer than the body. When the living

animal is examined under a magnifying power of 300 diameters,

the body appears to be bounded by a simple outline. But in

many instances, and especially. when a large specimen can be

found at rest, it may be seen that the internal substance of the

body is surrounded by a thin and perfectly clear membrane,

from which it is separated by a distinct space. When the in-

vesting membrane is more closely attached, its existence may

always be demonstrated by the employment of reagents to pro-

duce the contraction of the substance of the body : chromic acid

and solution of iodine in chloride of zinc are the best substances

toemploy, the latter especially, as it at the same time communicates

a brown colour to the internal sac (Pl. XI. fig. 2). Under cer-

tain circumstances, the investing membrane divides into minute

granules, assuming when viewed from the side a regular neck-

lace-like appearance (fig. 8). A reproduction of the membrane

then takes place. The substance of the body is perfectly clear,

with the same refractive properties as that of Amwba. About

the middle lies a clear, globular nucleus, surrounded by a nar-

row, reddish halo. Dilute acids render this more distinct. At

the anterior extremity, close to the margin, there are two reddish

vesicles, the contractions of which may easily be recognised in

individuals in a state of repose. The hinder extremity always

contains a mass of granules, with dark outlines, which are not

altered by acetic acid. A weak solution of iodine in iodide of

potassium gives them a deep blue colour, generally verging upon

black, as it is difficult to hit the right quantity of the reagent to

be added. The fine blue colour is better attamed by the addi-

tion of diluted solution of iodine in chloride of zinc, as with this

the granules become slightly liquefied, and when left standing

for some time even form a blue paste. Muriatic and sulphuric

acids also dissolve them, so that the subsequent addition of

iodine gives the whole body a blue colour. When the putrefac-

tion of the infusion is going on very rapidly, the granules fill the

entire body. They are not arranged in balls like the nutritive

Natural History of the Infusoria. 323

matter in the bodies of other Infusoria, and it is by no means

probable that they are taken in from the exterior. Besides the

two contractile vesicles, smgle, non-contractile, reddish vacuoles

are seen scattered through the substance of the body.

The starch-like granules are often converted into an indigo-

blue pigment, which is then partially dissolved, and colours the

whole parenchyma. Such specimens as these still retain the

power of division, so that there can be no doubt as to their iden-

tity with Polyéoma Uvella. Individuals were also frequently met

with of which the substance of the body was of a uniform

green colour, but which in other respects agreed exactiy with

Polytoma.

Deviations from this normal form never occur singly in

the same vessel, but always make their appearance simulta-

neously in a great number of individuals. Certain peculiarities

of their abode appear therefore to have an influence upon the form.

Very compressed forms are rare. However, it not unfrequently

happens that whilst the investing membrane retains its normal

form, the substance of the body is not equally distributed in its

interior. Sometimes it lies to one side, so as to fill only half

the interior of the sac; sometimes it is entirely collected in the

anterior, and sometimes in the posterior extremity ; in the latter

case it is connected with the anterior extremity by a slender fila-

ment (figs. 13 & 14). In infusions in which fermentation has

long ceased, and which conta a large quantity of brown

humus-like matter, but very small portions of nitrogenous sub-

stances in solution, the two last modifications of the parenchyma

are most frequently met with. At the same time the starch-like

granules disappear, the substance of the body acquires a darker,

fatty outline, and finally disappears, with formation of the well-

known large vacuoles.

The movements of Polytoma are the same as those usually

ascribed to organisms furnished with two filaments. Whilst in

motion the filaments are always in front, the animal rotates upon

its axis, and this again describes circular vibrations upon a cen-

tral pomt. If a movement in the opposite direction is takmg

place, the animal is endeavouring to turn the anterior extremity,

and until this is effected, it swims backwards. When a drop of

the infusion has been left for a few minutes upon a glass plate

covered over with a piece of thin glass, a considerable number of

the animals will be found attached to both glasses by their ante-

rior extremity ; the filaments are free, and it is probably by their

vibration that the hinder extremity is made to oscillate in the

direction of the plane of the two filaments. They collect in the

same manner in crowds upon aquatic plants, as well as upon the

sides of the vessel containing them. Their mode of attachment

21%

324 M. A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

is still unintelligible to me. In any case some contrivance for

this purpose, however simple, must exist either between the two

filaments, or at the side of their points of issue from the mem-

brane.

Reproduction.

During the swarming state a division of the substance of the

body goes on uninterruptedly, at all hours of the day. The dif-

ferent stages of this process follow one another with greater or

less rapidity in proportion as the conditions of nutrition are more

or less favourable. Soon after the commencement of fermenta-

tion in an infusion, the rate of increase attains its maximum ; it

then diminishes as the fermentation ceases, the offspring at the

same time undergoing a diminution of size.

The commencement of the process of division is indicated by

the uniform distribution of the granular substance. A constric-

tion of the substance then takes place, usually commencing on

one side ; by this the body is divided into two parts, which are

still enclosed in the uninjured investing membrane. Simulta-

neously with, or perhaps before the completion of this bisection,

the nucleus also divides (fig. 8). Although no constriction of

the nucleus was ever noticed, nothing certainly was observed to

contradict the supposition, that the second nucleus was produced

in this mamner. The two halves then become constricted trom

their surfaces of contact, in such a manner that the constriction

of one half crosses that of the other at right angles (fig. 4). To

every depression thus produced on the one side there is a corre-

sponding elevation of the other. The quadrisection (figs. 4 & 5)

then takes place suddenly as if by cutting, and without any ap-

pearance of a circular constriction, each portion contaiming its

proper nucleus. The divisions now acquire an oval form, and

arrange themselves in such a manner that the ends of the pos-

terior pair, which are turned towards the middle, alternate with

those of the anterior pair in the same place (fig. 6). In very

favourable circumstances (as for instance, at the commencement

of fermentation), a third division into eight parts takes place,

each division being still furnished with a nucleus. As a genera!

rule, however, the young individuals acquire filaments soon after

the quadrisection, and move about in various directions within

the investing membrane, until this bursts, and the young, which

are exactly like the mother except in their smaller size, are set

free. In favourable circumstances the empty membrane remains

with the two filaments. After the division of the substance into

four or eight parts, the investing membrane is always visible

without the employment of any reagents. This has not escaped

Ehrenberg (loc. cit. and tab. 1. xxxu.); he explains the appear-

Natural History of the Infusoria. 325

ance as a consequence of a superficial constriction. The fila-

ments of the parent always appear to be connected only with one

of the young individuals, although this is less distinguishable in

the present mode of division than in that about to be described.

In this the quadrisection takes place in another manner.

After bisection, the two portions shift their position in such a

manner, that the surfaces of contact form a distinct angle with

their original position. If this change of position be but trifling,

the quadrisection goes forward nearly in the manner just de-

scribed, and the arrangement of the developed young only differs

as far as is rendered necessary by this change of position (figs. 11

& 12). Butif it be more considerable, the new surfaces of divi-

sion run parallel to each other and nearly perpendicular to the

surfaces of contact of the two halves. The position of the young

individuals is then completely different from that seen in the pre-

ceding case ; all four lie parallel to each other, with their longitu-

dinal axis oblique as regards the axis of the whole (figs. 9 & 10).

This difference may perhaps be explained as follows :—each

portion has a tendency to acquire an oval form, so that soon

after the bisection the anterior portion extends itself posteriorly,

and the posterior towards the front. When sufficient time has

not elapsed for the one dimension to predominate over the other,

the quadrisection takes place as in the former case; but when,

on the other hand, one dimension has become predominant, the

division into four takes place in accordance with the same law as

the original division into two.

The method of division first described is always met with in

the early periods of an infusion, which are most favourable to the

development of the creatures. Towards the end the latter mode

alone occurs. This phenomenon was so remarkable, that on

the first occasion of my examining an infusion towards the close

of its action, I imagined that I had at first misunderstood the

mode of division.

Under certain circumstances the individuals pass to a state

of rest. They are then completely filled with the starch-like gra-

nules, so that the nucleus only appears as a reddish spot. The

substance of the body becomes spherical, and invests itself with a

membrane which is frequently of considerable thickness (fig. 7).

In this state I have never observed them to undergo any divi-

sion or any other change, and when dried the cysts still retain

their contents. When clear water is poured over them they do

not return to life, but would probably do so in a fermenting

infusion.

The mode in which the swarming individuals arrive at this

state of repose appears to be as follows. The filaments are gra-

dually shortened, their substance collecting at the free extremity

326 M. A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

in the form of a small knob, until at last the filiform portion en-

tirely disappears, and in place of the filaments, two vesicles are

seen at the anterior extremity of the investing membrane (fig. 15).

I have observed a similar contractibility of the substance of the

filaments in a Bodo which is most nearly allied to Bodo grands,

Ehrbg. As this possesses not three filaments only, as seen by

Focke (Ehrbg. p. 34), but often as many as five, the vesicles pro-

duced in this manner cannot easily be overlooked. I cannot

however state with certainty, whether all the individuals which

undergo this change invest themselves with cysts. When in-

fusions containing Polytoma are dried slowly, individuals with

the vesicles just described are found in the deposit, but no cysts,

and it is not impossible that such individuals may assist in the

continuation of the species in some other way.

Nearly allied to Polytoma is the Chlorogonium euchlorum of

Ehrenberg *, which consists of a firm, transparent, fusiform in-

vesting membrane, with which I was not able to obtain any re-

action for cellulose. Its interior is filled with a homogeneous

green mass, which is generally somewhat rounded behind ; the

green colour disappears in front, where the mass is distinctly

connected with the filaments inserted in the apex. In the middle

there is a transparent, round nucleus, the reddish halo sur-

rounding which is extended in a spindle shape towards the two

extremities. The surface of the green mass is completely covered

with reddish spots (as many as twelve), but none of these are of

such a fine red colour as the eye-spot of Euglena.

Ehrenberg describes Chlorogontum as possessing an eye; he

says,— The eye of Chlorogonium is very distinctly marked, but

very minute, so that it may easily be overlooked.” Unfortu-

nately during my observations upon this creature I had not

Ehrenberg’s work at hand; I cannot however call to mind that

one of the reddish spots was unusually distinct. I could not

discover a contractile space; but if this were no larger than in

Polytoma, it would require uncommon acuteness of vision to

distguish it from the non-contractile reddish spots. Divi-

sion takes place in the interior of the investing membrane, in

exactly the same manner as in Polytoma. The number of indi-

viduals produced is never less than four, but often as many as

thirty-two—in the latter case they are very small, but always

resemble the parent in other respects. A spherical state of rest

also occurs. It appears that when the requisite conditions are

present, the young proceeding from the division of the parent

pass into this state immediately after they are set free; their

soft investing membrane probably rendering them fitter for this

* P. 1l4sittab. val. fig; xvii.

Natural History of the Infusoria. 327

purpose. The contractions which then take place are probably

the same that were observed by Ehrenberg. In other respects I

have found the form quite unchangeable, and Chlorogonium must

consequently be separated from the Astaszea, amongst which it

has hitherto been arranged. On the addition of iodine only a

few blue granules are to be seen in the fusiform individuals ;

the green spheres, on the contrary, which are completely filled

with green granules, acquire a deep blue colour with this reagent :

if the colouring matter be destroyed by means of concentrated

sulphuric acid, the granules are dissolved, and on the addition

of iodine a beautiful blue colour is produced. By long keeping

the green of the cysts passes to red. The cysts are not to be

roused from their torpid state by the production of fermentation.

I have, however, observed their revivification under other cireum-

stances, but my materials are insufficient to enable me to describe

the mode of reproduction of the investing membrane and

filaments, which would certainly be interesting. The conditions

required for the existence of Chlorogonium are apparently quite

different from those of Polytoma; the former did not multiply

abundantly in infusions until the latter had passed to the state

of repose.

To show how very different is the mode of division in other

Monadina, in which the investing membrane is deficient, we

may refer to Chilomonas paramecium, Ehrbg. (p.30. tab. 11. fig. vi.).

The form of this animal is subject to considerable variation. It

usually presents a longish oval, broader at one end than at the

other. At the broader end, a little to one side of the apex,

there is a small indentation, in which the two filaments are

placed. The interior is principally filled with round granules

(as represented by Ehrenberg), which distinctly exhibit the re-

actions of starch. In the hinder portion a clear nucleus with a

reddish halo may be observed. The oval is but rarely perfect ;

it is generally flattened on two sides, and the surfaces thus pro-

duced are even somewhat impressed in a longitudinal direction.

It is to this impression, I think, that the reddish colour which

makes its appearance when the animal is examined lying flat

before the observer, is to be ascribed. I could discover no con-

tractile space, although a reddish vesicle certainly does always

exist in the anterior extremity ; I must, however, leave its con-

tractibility an undecided point. Ehrenberg mentions expressly,

that Chilomonas paramecium never could be made to take in

coloured nourishment, nor have I been able to observe this any

more than with Polytoma.

Whatever number of these animals may be observed, no trace

of division will ever be remarked in them. Very rarely we may

see two individuals adhering by their middle, evidently produced

by a longitudinal division. We shall endeavour to explain this.

328 M. A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

On close examination, one or two reddish lines may be seen run-

ning backwards from the bottom of the mdentation (fig. 25),

which might readily be taken for organs lyimg in the interior of

the body. I have convinced myself, however, especially by the

comparison of the process of division in a species of Bodo, that

these lines indicate furrows, which gradually divide the whole by

cutting deeper and deeper on each side. As during this process

the animal undergoes no change of form, except in becoming a

little broader, and the division takes place along its whole

length, the process must readily escape observation. The ante-

rior end is always a little thicker ; the furrows consequently are

deeper and more distinctly recognizable in that part. With a

suitable arrangement of the microscope, it is evident that, the

two furrows being looked at simultaneously, two reddish lines

are seen. It is only in rare cases, when the division has taken

place more slowly in some particular spot, that the two spe-

cimens must endeavour to tear themselves free, and thus, by

twisting in contrary directions, draw our attention to them. That

the process of division is effected in a similar manner m other

Monadina, appears from an observation of Ehrenberg’s upon

Cryptomonas cylindrica (p. 42) :—“ I saw no instance of constric-

tion or fissation, but two individuals were swimming whilst ad-

hering together, which might lead one to suppose that a longi-

tudinal division from behind forwards had taken place.” And

it is not improbable that the specimen represented by him on

tab. 11. fig. xix. 2, with two seminal glands (nuclei?) and two

longitudinal lines, was in the act of division.

The occurrence of an encysted or quiescent state in Polytoma

cannot be considered remarkable, smce Stein has made known

the encystation of Vorticella microstoma*, and Cohn that of Tra-

chelius Ovum, Trachelocerca Olor, Holophrya Ovum, Prorodon

teres and Chilodon uncinatus+. To this list I can add some others

from my own observations. Stylonychia pustulata, Ehrbg., gra-

dually acquires a spherical form, still retaiming its cilia ; the cilia

then quickly fall off, continual little contractions take place, and

a clear mucus is secreted by the whole surface, which gradually

hardens into a strong, solid membrane. When a spherical spe-

cimen is obtained, the casting off of the cilia and the secretion of

the membrane may easily be followed under the microscope.

The exclusion of the animal completely furnished with cilia may

often be observed, merely by re-establishing fermentation in the

fluid. The animals which are somewhat elongated previously

twist round spirally with great rapidity within the cyst.

After exclusion, they present a remarkable resemblance to

* Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1848.

+ Siebold und Kolhiker’s Zeitschrift, 1y.

Natural History of the Infusoria. 329

Oxytricha caudata, Ehrbg. (tab. xu. fig. xi.), although I will not

say that they are perfectly identical; the posterior extremity in

particular is always bent round in the manner represented by

Ehrenberg at No. 3 of the figure just cited.

Huplotes Charon, Ehrbg., contracts itself within its shield-

shaped carapace into a ball, which then invests itself with a new

membrane. As long as the carapace, which is distinguished by

its striz, is still retained, there can be no doubt as to the animal

enclosed in the cyst. The cysts of both these Infusoria are, as

might be expected, very common in infusions, and are probably

often confounded with the cysts of Vorticella.

Pontotrichum lagenella forms a cyst like that of Trachelius

described by Cohn (op. cit. supra, p. 267), which completely re-

tains the flask-like form of the body. Within this the animal

contracts itself into a ball and invests itself with a new mem-

brane. dmeba also actually has a state of rest. I observed it

become round on one side, on which a firm membrane was then

formed, whilst the other portion continued its peculiar move-

ments. By degrees the membrane extends itself over the whole

body, the moveable portion constantly becoming smaller, until

at last a completely closed cyst is produced, in the clear interior

of which a round nucleus with a reddish halo, exactly like that

of Polytoma and other Monadina, may be distinctly observed*.

During our investigation of Polytoma, we have always tacitly

regarded it as of animal nature. But if we consider how very

difficult it is, in the present state of our knowledge, to draw the

boundary-line between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, it

becomes necessary to inquire with what right we have done so.

If the cycle of development of Polytoma be compieted by the

forms now known, it is clear, in the first place, that Polytoma

behaves very like a simple cell. A structureless membrane in-

yests a soft, membraneless substance, which is continued exter-

nally in the form of a pair of filaments. The nucleus behaves

like a cell-nucleus. It is true that if it be necessary that the

nucleus of an animal cell should be a vesicle, the nucleus of

Polytoma does not fulfil this condition. But is the proper mem-

brane a necessary element of the animal cell-nucleus? Is it

not possible that this may be formed only under certain circum-

stances? In the nucleus of Amebua, I have often observed, on

the outer surface of the reddish halo, granulations which united

to form a closed membrane; whilst at other times the nucleus

exactly resembled that of Polytoma.

* I take this opportunity of callmg attention to this nucleus, which,

as far as I am aware, has uot yet been noticed. By the comparison of

numerous specimens, its constant appearance will distinguish it from enclosed

particles of food. . It occurs in A. diffuens and radiosa.

330 M.A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

So that if it be considered possible that contractile spaces may

occur in a primordial vesicle without the necessity for a peculiar

apparatus of contractile fibres, Polytoma fulfils all the requisite

conditions of a cell.

That Polytoma is an animal may be maintained upon two

grounds.

Ll. The constitution of the investing membrane.— As soon as the

starch-like granules have been destroyed by the long action of

concentrated sulphuric acid, no part of the creature is coloured

blue by iodine. Now we have no more reason for believing that

the vegetable cell-membrane must necessarily consist of cellulose,

than that the animal cell-membrane should nof consist of that

substance, so that we are still compelled to seek for other cha-

racters for their distinction. These would be—

2. The contractile spaces.—A statement of Cohn’s* has cer-

tainly rendered it doubtful, whether the occurrence of these is

henceforward to be regarded as an essential indication of an ani-

mal nature. He says, “On the other hand, certain genera of

Algze exhibit a stage of development, in which, in external form,

in the absence of a cellulose membrane, in the distinct existence

of ciliary organs of motion, red eye-like spots, vacuoles, and,

according to a very recent discovery, of iternal pulsating

spaces, they undoubtedly appear very similar to the Asto-

matous Infusoria.” If these pulsating spaces occur only

im unicellular Algz provided with cilia, these perhaps should

properly be restored to their place amongst animals, notwith-

standing the subsequent appearance of cellulose-membrane upon

them. But if they occur in the swarm-cells of the Conferve,

they certamly cease to be a characteristic of animal nature.

Thus, if we are not yet in a position to refer Polytoma with per-

fect certamty to its proper place, there is decidedly no reason for

excluding it from the animal kingdom. We will not, however,

venture te consider the Infusoria furnished with a mouth (St¢o-

matoda, Von Siebold), as formed, like Polytoma, upon the type of

a simple cell; for, high as we may rate the advantage accruing to

science from the comparison of the Protozoa with simple cells,

difficulties stand in the way of its complete application in the

case of animals of such complicated structure as the Vorticelle

for example ; and these cannot be considered as entirely done away

with, until the history of their development has furnished proof

that at no period does a fusion of several cells take place.

In conclusion we bring together the results of the investiga-

tion as shortly as possible.

* Zwanzigster Jahresbericht der schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir vater-

landisehe Cultur, 1852, p. 46.

Natural History of the Infusoria. 331

1. Polytoma is an animal.

2. It is characterized by a clear investing membrane, which

does not consist of cellulose ; two contractile spaces in the sub-

stance of the body; a nucleus with a nucleolus; two filaments ;

and by the deposition of layers of starch-like granules.

3. The starch-granules may become converted into a blue or

green colouring matter.

4. Polytoma divides within the investing membrane into two,

four, or eight parts, and propagates itself in this manner.

5. It passes into a state of repose.

Il. Difflugia Enchelys, Ehrenberg.

A Rhizopod occurred in company with Polytoma in all infusions,

the description of which will show, how very readily it might be

supposed to be produced by a metamorphosis of the latter ani-

mal. Unfortunately I cannot confirm this supposition, and

must confine myself to recording the fact. From its extraor-

dinary transparency the examination of this creature was not

without interest.

The Rhizopod in question has a transparent, membranous

case, of an oval form, somewhat spherical on one side. The

substance of the body is either attached uniformly to the interior

of this case, or lies detached from it in various forms (figs. 16, 17,

18, 19). The substance of the body projects from the narrower

end of the case, formmg that moveable portion, which may be

shortly characterized as the foot. In the hinder end there is a

round, reddish nucleus, with a white nucleolus, which is only

distinguished from that of Polytoma by the greater breadth of

the reddish halo. The foot can exhibit the most various forms.

In its simplest state it is nothing but.a transparent globule, which

afterwards divides into two or more smaller ones. From these

smaller processes are given off, and sometimes an indefinite num-

ber of tentacles with acute or rounded extremities is formed.

These tentacles are frequently drawn out to such an extent as

only to present the appearance of thin rays, Sometimes also the

foot is branched, and then usually encloses granules of foreign

matter in its ramifications. The reception of nourishment is

probably effected by means of the foot, in exactly the same man-

ner as in Ameba. The granules of food occur at first only in

the anterior portion of the substance of the body, which then

usually has a folded appearance, while the hinder portion re-

mains full and round. By degrees the whole body becomes

filled, and the nucleus almost concealed. Vacuoles are seen in

all parts. The contractile spaces are probably only concealed

from sight, but I was unable to discover them.

332 M.A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

The Rhizopod just described is probably identical with Ehren-

berg’s Difflugia Enchelys. his is characterized as follows :—

“PD. minima, lorica ovata, dorso rotundato, glabra, pellucida,

hyalina, 46 tam line partem longa, processibus hyalinis, tenul-

bus, parvis, apertura laterali.” This description, as well as the

figure (tab. 1x. fig. iv.), agrees very well with our animal, except

the “lateral opening.” The form or position of the foot may,

however, cause the opening to appear as lying more towards one

side.

True double animals of our D. Enchelys are frequently met

with,—two bodies with membranous cases and nuclei being

attached to a common foot (fig. 20). The foot very often con-

sists only of a thin thread, but im other cases it exhibits all the

forms which have been described as belonging to the foot of the

simple animal. Both bodies are well filled with food. Three,

four or five bodies are frequently seen hanging together in the

same manner; these however are by no means in the same

plane, but stand out from the foot in various directions. If

these animals are obtained in considerable numbers, the forma-

tion of these colonies by gemmation may easily be observed.

The foot is seen gradually to increase in size and acquire an oval

form. A new investing membrane and nucleus are then formed.

The offset is always equal to the parent animal in size. Like the

foot of a single animal, the common foot of two or more is, as

might be supposed, still in a condition to form offsets.

A similar adhesion of Rhizopoda has already been frequently

observed. Cohn, in his ‘ Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte

der Infusorien *,’ has brought together the imstances of this in

a note, and conjectures that this adhesion is preparatory to a

copulation ; but may we not rather suppose that a gemmation

like that of D. Enchelys also takes place in other Rhizopoda ?

With Perty and Cohn I have also seen a pair of Arcella vulgaris

attached to one another by their openings, of which one, exactly

as was observed by those naturalists, was provided with a white,

the other with a yellow shell. The white shell is probably newly

formed, and therefore indicates the young specimen produced

by gemmation from its companion.

I have observed another mode of propagation in our Difflugia,

and although my observations have certainly not been frequent,

they have been sufficiently satisfactory. After I had kept a

great number of these creatures for some weeks in a clayey

sediment, the substance of the body, in all the individuals, con-

tracted into a ball. All foreign substances had previously dis-

appeared. The ball, which had a fatty outline, then divided into

* Siebold und Kolliker’s Zeitschrift, iv. p. 261.

Natural History of the Infusoria. 333

two and four parts, but the nucleus could not be traced during

this process. The investing membrane fell to pieces, and the

little spheres, which may perhaps be regarded as four quiescent

spores, were no more to be seen (PI. XI. figs. 22, 23).

Whether another circumstance observed by me has any con-

nexion with the reproduction of Difflugia, must be ascertained

hereafter. In all the individuals of Difflugia contained in one

vessel, the substance of the body became converted into granules

closely packed together (fig. 24), the form and the investing

membrane being retamed. I often saw these granules in quick

molecular movement in the interior of a sac, which appeared to

be formed from the outermost layer of the body, but I watched

in vain for any issue to this ; after moving for about half an hour,

the granules always became quiescent again.

If we bring together the results of this investigation, it ap-

pears that —

1. Difflugia Enchelys has a nucleus.

2. As other Rhizopoda, Ameba for example, also possess one,

a nucleus probably occurs in all Rhizopoda.

3. Difflugia Enchelys propagates by gemmation.

4. It is probable that other Rhizopoda also propagate by

gemmation.

5. Difflugia Enchelys forms four quiescent spores.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. Polytoma Uvella, magnified 300 times :—a, the starch-like gra-

nules; 6, the nucleus with its nucleolus; c, the contractile

vesicles.

Fig. 2. The same after long action of chromic acid.

Fig. 3. The same bisected.

Fig. 4. The commencement of the constriction for quadrisection. The

direction of the constriction of the other half lies in the plane of

the paper.

Fig. 5. The quadrisection completed.

Fig. 6. The divisions have acquired the oval form.

Fig. 7. Quiescent state :—A, nucleus.

Fig. 8. The mvesting membrane divided into granules.

Fig. 9. Another mode of quadrisection. The portions have nearly acquired

the oval form before quadrisection.

Fig. 10. Position of the fully-developed young in this mode of division.

Fig. 11. The two halves have slightly changed their position before qua-

drisection.

Fig. 12. Position of the young in this mode of division. The two lower

ones lie across the upper, and appear through them.

Fig. 13. The body occupying only one side of the investing membrane.

Fig. 14. The body is contracted into the hinder portion of the membrane,

and only connected with the filaments by a thin thread.

Fig. 15. The filaments contracted into two little knobs.

Figs. 16,17, 18, 19. Different forms of Diffiugia Enchelys.

Fig. 20. Adherent specimens of Diflugia.

334 Mr. H. J. Carter on Zoosperms in Spongilla.

Fig. 21. Commencement of gemmation.

Figs. 22, 23. The body of Difiugia divided mto four spores.

‘ig. 24. The body divided into granules.

Fig. 25. Chilomonas parameciun :—a, reddish vesicle; 5, lines indicating

the furrows of bisection; c, nucleus. The dark granules are

starch.

XXX.—Zoosperms in Spongilla. By H. J. Carrer, Esq.

[With a Plate. ]

Havine resolved to watch for the antheridia and their spiral

filaments, as they became developed this monsoon in the mosses

and smaller cryptogamic plants of the island of Bombay, the

thought struck me that I might include Spongilla, which also

grows rapidly a few weeks after the commencement of the rains.

I therefore, about the 1st of July, threw several handfuls of

Spongilla, previously broken up for the purpose, on the surface of

the water of a tank which had been dry for some weeks before

the monsoon began, and which was now filled.

On the 20th July I visited the tank, and found these portions

of Spongilla in many places attached to the under sides of dead

leaves, and matting up bits of straw and other floating substances

under a superficial layer of green, slimy conferva. Some of the

portions were an inch long in their new, projecting, mammiform

arts.

‘ On examining the structure of the latter internally, I found

the old deciduous capsules at the base, but could discover no

new ones sufficiently developed to be recognized.

A mammiform projection was then selected, which from its

light colour appeared to possess no foreign material, and from

this a small piece was cut out, which, having been washed to

clear it still further from all impurities, was torn to pieces as

much as possible in water, and the whole placed under a mag-

nifying power of 500 diameters.

Here the trembling motion of the fragments of Spongilla,

always present under such circumstances, was immediately per-

ceived, and on searching more narrowly for the cause of this, it

was seen to be owing to minute hair-like filaments m rapid

motion, which projected outwards from the sides of the principal

masses, very much like cilia. On endeavouring however to find

out if these filaments were attached to any definite forms, and

selecting for this purpose the smallest and most isolated frag-

ments which presented the tremulous motion, I saw that they

consisted in each instance of a spherical cell, to which was

attached the hair-like appendage mentioned (Pl. XI*. fig. 1).

Mr. H. J. Carter on Zoosperms in Spongilla. 335

On further examination, the cell appeared to be formed exactly

hike the sponge-cell itself, but proportionally minute in every

respect—that is, that granular matter, mterspersed with a few

granules of much larger size, is spread over more or less of the

internal surface of the cell, giving it the appearance at one time

of being entirely granular and at another of being only partially

so, according as the granular matter is wholly or partially upper-

most (figs. 1, 2). Moreover, the cell frequently changes its

shape, which shows that, like the sponge-cell, it is also meta-

morphic (figs. 3, 4, 5). One hair-like appendage only projects

from its surface, which, in length, is about three times the dia-

meter of the cell, and occasionally appears to widen at the base,

as if it were a prolongation of the cell-wall itself; its motions

might be likened to those of a rope, so shaken at one end that

the undulations extend throughout, and therefore when used in

progression this filament gives to the cell a “ serpentine creep-

ing”’ course.

At first the polymorphism of the cell and movements of the

tail are so rapid, that literally, neither “ head nor tail” can be

made out of the little mass. Presently, however, its power of

progression and motion begins to fail, and if separated from

other fragments it soon becomes stationary, and after a little

polymorphism assumes its natural, passive form, which is that

of a spherical cell (fig. 1). During this time the motions of

the tail become more and more languid and at length cease

altogether.

If, on the other hand, there be very large fragments in the

immediate neighbourhood, or an active sponge-cell under poly-

morphism sweeps over the field, it may attach itself to one or

the other of these, when its cell becomes undistinguishable from

the common mass, and the tail, floating and undulating out-

wards, is all that remains visible. Hence many of the larger

fragments present more or less of these filaments on their cir-

cumference (fig. 6).

To see if any existed on the investing membrane of the sur-

face, or on the lining membrane of the canals of Spongilla, a

slice including portions of both was placed under the micro-

scopic power mentioned, but none presented themselves, neither

was there any motion in the surrounding particles indicative of

the presence of cilia.

This cell, which is by far the most active in its movements of

any part of Spongilla, makes the whole of the fragments tremble,

when a portion of the latter is first torn to pieces, after the man-

ner of the swarming, vibrating movements observed in the sperm-

cells of mosses, when the fully-developed mass just quits the

antheridium. They are about the 1-4800th part of an inch in

336 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

diameter, and the tail about three times this diameter in

length.

Dujardin saw and has figured these cells and their filaments

en masse, and observed polymorphism in the former, from which

he compared them to a Volvow, and inferred that the use of the

filaments was “ pour déterminer a la surface le déplacement de

Peau et par suite les courans dans les oscules ” (Ann des Sc. Nat.

2nd ser. t. x. pp. 9,10). But he did not see these filaments on

the surface of Spongilla, nor on the linmg membrane of its

canals, neither have { been able to detect them in either of these

situations. Huxley has also described and figured similar bodies

in a species of “ Tethya” (Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. vu.

p. 873, 1851), which he considers “ spermatozoa ;” and I know

not what else to consider those above described, if they are not

the spermatozoa or zoosperis of Spongilla.

The portions of Spongilla which were thrown into the tank I

had had by me for sevenor eight years, and the period during which

the ova while in their capsules will retain their vitality, if not

some parts of the dried skeleton also, seems almost indefinite.

Bombay, 28th July 1854.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI*.

Fig. 1. Zoosperm of Spongilla about 1-4300th inch in diameter, magnified ;

passive condition.

Fig. 2. Ditto ditto active; stationary or progressive.

Figs. 3, 4. Ditto ditto polymorphic.

Fig. 5. Ditto ditto ditto, showing the insertion of the tail drawn forwards

by the polymorphism of the cell.

Fig. 6. Portion of Spongilla, magnified, presenting tails of zoosperms in

active motion. Natural size about 1000th of an inch in diameter.

XXXI.—On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq.,

F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

[Concluded from p. 194.]

3. Macrocorps. Corolle tubus laciniis limbi brevior : stamina longe

exserta. Species omnes Neogee.

* Filamenta imo glandula lineart carnosa margine ciliata donata.

60. Lycium filifolum, Gill.;—inerme, glaberrimum, ramosis-

simum, ramulis virgatis, cinereis, striatis, nodis cupulatis ;

foliis alternis, vel subfasciculatis, longe et anguste linearibus,

utrinque acutis, crassiusculis ; floribus solitarius, gracile pe-

dunculatis, calyece poculiformi, subpubescente, membranaceo,

5-6-costato, 5-—6-dentato, dentibus obtusiusculis, ciliatis ;

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 337

corolle tubo calyce 3-plo longiore, infra medium coarctato,

cylindrico, imo imcrassato annulo barbato cincto, fauce am-

pliato, limbi laciniis 5-6, oblongis, tubo sub-brevioribus, mar-

gine ciliatis, staminibus 5-6, in coarctationem insertis, fila-

mentis imo geniculatis, glandula elongata margine dense bar-

bata donatis, superne levibus, subzequalibus, exsertis ; stylo

staminibus excedente.—Prov. “ Buenos Ayres” Argentinorum.

—v. s. in Herb. Hooker. (Bahia Blanca) Darwin, no. 509.

(Pampas, ad Monte de Loro) Gilles.

This is evidently a shrub with long slender branches, much

resembling L. vimineum in habit, but distinguished by a different

floral structure : the leaves are 4 to 9 lines long; in Dr. Gillies’

specimen they are not more than } line broad, in Mr. Darwin’s

they are } to $ line broad: the very slender pedicels are 1} line

long ; the calyx is narrow, somewhat pubescent, and 1 line in

length; the tube of the corolla is 1} line, the border 1 line

long; the stamens reach the length of the segments of the

border *.

Var. 8. minutifolium ;—ramulis multo gracilioribus, folus bre-

vioribus, fasciculatis aut alternis, glaberrimis ; calycis dentibus

ciliatis ; corolla pentamera; bacca parvula, globosa, coccinea,

calyce immutato suffulta.—Patagonia (Tweedie).

The branchlets here are almost filiform, the leaves 2 to 23 lines

long, } line broad, the peduncle is 12 line, the calyx of similar

length, the corolla 3 limes long, and the berry 2 lines in

diameter.

61. Lycium salsum, R. & P. FI. Per. 11. 46. tab. 183 a; Dunal in

DC. Prodr. xin. 519. LL. gracile, Meyen? Nov. Act. Ac. Ces.

Leop. xix. Sup. 1. 389 ;—biorgyale, subscandens, omnino gla-

berrimum, ramulis gracillime virgatis, angulato-costatis, spinis

acicularibus seepe munitis: folus subfasciculatis, spathulato-

linearibus, glaberrimis: floribus solitariis pendulis, pedunculo

capillari folio longiore, calyce parvo, poculiformi, 5-costato,

inzequaliter 5-dentato, dentibus apice ciliatis ; corolle albo-

purpurez tubo brevi calyce longiore, extus glabro, infra me-

dium coarctato, fauce ainpliato, limbi laciniis tubo sublongio-

ribus, oblongis, margine ciliatis ; staminibus 5 zequalibus, longe

exsertis, filamentis in coarctationem tubi sistentibus, circa

basin geniculatam fascicula densa oblonga pilorum donatis,

istis cum fasciculis totidem tubo adnatis alternantibus.—In

Peruvie litoribus.—v. s. in herb. Hook. Lurm et Pachacamac

(Mathews, no. 450).

* This species with floral analysis is shown in the ‘ Ilustr. South Amer.

Plants,’ vol. i. plate 72 B.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 22

338 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

This is a trailing shrub with long slender pendulous branches,

growing in saline places near the sea, and having much the habit

of L. pendulinum. The leaves have a saline taste, whence its

specific name; they are about 4 lines long, 1 line broad, and

veinless ; the peduncle is slender, filiform, 23 to 3 lmes long ;

the tubular calyx is 1] line long, smooth, with five unequal, short,

pubescent teeth ; the tube of the corolla is 13 line in length, the

segments of the border are somewhat longer, narrow, oblong

and subciliated on the margins: the filaments are inserted at a

quarter the length of the tube from the bottom, and a little

above their smooth geniculated base are furnished with a dense

oblong brush of hairs; they reach the extremity of the segments

of the border, and are therefore much exserted when the flower

is expanded *.

62. Lycium Chilense, Miers, Trav. 11. 531; Bertero, Mem. Tur.

xxxill. 133. tab. 44; Dumal in DC. Prodr. xin. 514. L. nu-

tans, Pop. L. canum, Gill. MSS. Walp. Rep. ui. 112 ;—

subinerme, rarissime spinescens, ramulis inermibus pubescen-

tibus, angulato-costatis, lineis helvolis e nodis cupularibus

utrinque decurrentibus, foliis alternis, raro subfasciculatis,

ovatis vel oblongis, seepe angustis, subacutis, aut interdum

obtusiusculis, imo in petiolum brevissimum attenuatis, integris,

utrinque breviter pubescentibus, pilis brachiato-articulatis ;

floribus solitariis, pedunculo piloso, calyce ad medium equa-

liter 5-fido, utrinque glauco-piloso, dentibus acutis, ciliatis ;

corolla extus valde griseo-pubescente, tubo subinfundibuli-

formi, 5-sulcato, flavido, paullo supra basin constricto, annu-

loque dense barbato cincto, imbi laciniis 5, oblongis, paten-

tibus, tubo flavido parum longioribus, intus glabris, versus

marginem pallescentibus, centro lilacinis, lneis purpureis

notatis ; staminibus 5 e medio tubi ortis, subsequalibus, fila.

mentis supra geniculum basalem levem glandula lineari glabra

margine densiter villosa donatis, et cum fasciculis totidem

tubo adnatis alternantibus hinc faucem claudentibus, supernc

glaberrimis, attenuatis et longe exsertis, ovario tubi circum-

scissi reliquo semi-involuto, stylo staminibus paullo longiore,

stigmate sub-2-lobo ; bacca ovali, coccinea, apiculata, calyce

suffulta.—Chile, preesertim in litoribus.—v. v.+

This may be considered as the type of the many South

American species, which form a well-marked group, distin-

guished principally by their peculiar brachiate pubescence, the

* A drawing of this plant with analytical details is given (Joc. ct/.) in

plate 72 C.

+ This plant with sectional details is shown (doc. cit.) in plate 72 D.

ta)

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 339

hairs being always articulated, often short, and sometimes only

visible under the lens : they are also remarkable for the peculiar

glandular long adnate scale with fimbriated or barbated margins

attached to the lower portion of the stamens, and which by the

geniculation of the filaments at their origin, compose a fornix

that closes the tube of the corolla: they might almost form a

distinct section or subgenus (Celidophora). ‘The angles of the

branchlets generally exhibit raised reddish-coloured ribs which

spring from each side of the bony cupular or bracket-shaped

node seen at the origin of each branch or leaf. In this species

the leaves are often small, in some cases almost linear, in others

ovate, varying from 4 to 8 lines in length, and 1 to 3 lines in

breadth : the petiole is almost obsolete : the peduncle is 3 lines,

the calyx 2 lines long, which offers the peculiarity of being

thickly pubescent within as well as outside ; the pointed reflected

teeth are a line in length: the tube of the corolla is 2 lines

long, the segments of the border 3 lines; the stamens are 22

lines in length: the scarlet berry is nearly 3} lines long and

23 lines broad, and contains numerous small flattened reniform

seeds, in which the slender terete embryo makes a gyration and a

half, in a spiral form; the radicle, nearly equal in length to the

cotyledons, points to the basal angle of the seed, avoiding the

lateral hilum. This shrub is very common along the coast of

Chile, where it is called Piqullin: it is no. 367 of Cuming’s col-

lection. I have not seen L. gracile of Meyen from the neigh-

bourhood of Coquimbo, referred to this species by M. Dunal,

which from the description appears to me to accord better with

L. salsum, R. & P.

63. Lycium pubescens (n. sp.) ;—ramosissinum, omnino pubes-

cens, ramulis approximatis, horizontaliter divergentibus, spi-

nosis, valde foliosis ; foliis minimis, fasciculatis, anguste line-

aribus, imo spathulatis, utrinque pubescentibus, pilis mol-

libus articulatis glutinosis fere tomentosis ; floribus paucis e

fasciculis solitariis, brevissime pedunculatis ; calyce urceolato,

5-fido, dentibus linearibus, acutis, corollz tubo glabro, calyce

2-plo longiore, intus paullo sub faucem fasciculis 5 pilorum

staminibus alternantibus donato, limbi lacinis 5, oblongis,

margine vix ciliatis, tubo longioribus, staminibus 5, ineequa-

libus, exsertis, filamentis sub medium tubi insertis, hinc

glabris et geniculatis, mox usque ad medium glandula lineari

margine hirsuta donatis, superne glabris, 2 longioribus apicem

laciniarum attingentibus ; bacca parva, coccinea, calyce (laci-

niis summo conniventibus) cincta.— In Bonaria australi.—v. s.

in herb. Hook. Tweedie (Patagonia).

This plant was collected by Tweedie in the southern portion

22%

340 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

of the province of Buenos Ayres, towards the Rio Colorado and

Bahia Blanca—a country always denominated by him “ Pata-

gonia.” It is wholly covered with a dense yellowish pubescence ;

the leaves are about 14 line long, } line broad, the peduncle

1 line long, the calyx 1 line, the tube of the corolla 14 lime, the

segments of the border a trifle longer; the berry is 14 line in

diameter, enclosed by the embracing lobes of the calyx*.

64. Lycium Patagonicum (n. sp.);—subinerme, subglabrum, ra-

mosum, ramulis glabris, angulato-costatis, costis helvolis e

cupula conspicua axillari utrinque decurrentibus; folis al-

ternis, rarius fasciculatis, parvis et ovatis, aut longiusculis et

spathulato-linearibus, carnosulis, margine incrassatis, inter-

dum glabriusculis et glanduloso-punctulatis, vel sparse pubes-

centibus, pilis brevissimis rigidis articulatis aut brachiatis,

brevissime petiolatis ; floribus solitarius, calyce 5-dentato, pe-

dunculoque pubescente ; corollz tubo infundibuliformi, calyce

fere duplo longiore, interne e medio cylindrico, et hme annulo

carnoso crebre piloso extus donato, limbi laciniis 5, oblongis,

margine ciliatis, tubo sublongioribus ; stamimibus in contrac-

tionem tubi insertis, filamentis imo geniculatis, et hine glan-

dula lineari plana glabra margine fimbriata signatis, subsequa-

libus, exsertis ; bacca ovata, coccinea, calyce suffulta.—Pata-

gonia.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (St. Elena) Capt. King.

A plant much resembling in appearance L. infaustum, but de-

cidedly different in its floral structure. The leaves are from 2 to

5 lines long, | line broad; the pedicel is 23 lines, the calyx 2

lines, and the corolla 32 lines in length ; the tube of the latter

has five small tufts of hair alternating with the ciliated glands of

the filaments ; the berry is 23 lines long and 2 lines broad ft.

65. Lycium scoparium (n. sp.) ;—imerme, divaricato- et virgato-

ramosum, pilis brevissimis rigidis articulatis et brachiatis ubi-

que hirtulum ; ramulis angulato-costatis, glauco-roridis, axillis

approximatis, cupulari-nodosis ; foliis fasciculatis, anguste vel

latiore linearibus, utrinque pubescentibus, in petiolum brevis-

simum attenuatis; floribus solitariis, breviter pedunculatis,

calyce hirsuto, dentibus 5, lmeari-acutis, tubo duplo longi-

oribus, sinubus rotundatis, corollze extus pubescentis laciniis 5,

oblongis, patentibus, tubo infundibuliformi paullo longioribus,

staminibus exsertis corolla «quilongis, stylo istis longiore,

bacca globosa, coccinea.—In Provinciis Mendozz et 8. Ludo-

vice Argentinorum.—. v.

* A representation of this plant with analysis of its flower is shown

(loc. cit.) in plate 72 EK.

+ This species with floral section is given (oc. cit.) in plate 72 F.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 341

This is an extremely polymorphous species, under which I

have united many forms which I formerly considered as distinct

species, but as there is little apparent difference in their floral

structure they must be regarded as mere varieties. They are all

widely spread over the extensive desert plains that skirt the

eastern side of the Andes ; many even reach the Atlantic: they

vary greatly in the shape and size of the leaves even in the same

plant, in their more glabrous or pubescent habit, or in a greater

abundance or paucity of leaves and flowers. This species is

closely assimilated to L. salsum and L. Chilense, but still more

approaching L. Grevilleanum. In that variety which I have

taken as the type of the species, the whole plant is more pubes-

cent, the leaves linear; somewhat acute, 2 to 5 lines long, 3 to 3

line broad, tapering into a short slender petiole: the peduncle is

3 line long; the tube of the pubescent calyx is } line long, its

pointed linear teeth 1 line in length ; the tube of the corolla is

pubescent externally, 13 line long, the lobes of the border 24+

lines long and 1} line broad; the nearly equal stamens, 3 lines

in length, attain the ends of the segments: the ovary and style

are 42 lines long. I found this plant on the Alto del Yeso, a

low mountain range in the province of San Luiz, bordering on

that of Mendoza. In this, as in all the other varieties, the sta-

mens exhibit the same peculiar linear gland with fimbriated

margins which I have described in the foregoing species, and

similar tufts of hair upon the inner face of the tube, alternating

with the staminal glands*.

Var. 8. lineare: the leaves are here more copious, not so pubes-

cent, 6 to 12 lines long, } to 1 line broad, but in the same

specimen often not more than 3 lines in length: this I col-

lected also on the Alto del Yeso as well as the Coral de Desa-

guadero in the same provincet.

Var. y. confertifolium: here the leaves are broader, oblong, and

more glandularly pubescent, 4 to 6 lines long, 12 line broad ;

the axils are closely approximated at the extremities of the

branchlets, so that the fascicles of leaves appear crowded : the

branchlets issue from the branches at right angles, or some-

times curving downwards ; the cup-shaped nodes are unusually

prominent. I found this variety in the province of Mendoza:

it is the same as a specimen in Sir Wm. Hooker’s herbarium

collected by Dr. Gillies (ZL. Hookerianum, Gill. MSS.t).

Var. 6. divaricatum: a variety greatly resembling the last in its

* This plant with floral analysis is shown (/oc. cit.) im plate 73 A.

+ A figure of this variety with details is given (Joc. cit.) im plate 73 B.

t A representation of this plant with details is given (/oc. cit.), plate 73 C.

342 Mr. J. Miers.on the genus Lycium.

spreading branches and pale stem, with raised costate lines

decurrent from each margin of the cupular nodes ; the leaves

are similar in form, less dense, quite glabrous, with the excep-

tion of the younger leaves, which are slightly pubescent ; they

are 4:to 7 lines long, 1 to 2 lines broad; the berry is globular,

of a crimson colour, and supported by the cup-shaped toothed

calyx. I found this growing abundantly in the Travesia or

desert tract of Mendoza*,

Var. ¢. affine: ramulis subvirgatis, strictis, pallide pubescen-

tibus, nodis axillaribus valde prominentibus; foliis fascicu-

latis, oblongis, utrinque acutis, rigidis, pallide flavescentibus,

pilis brevibus brachiatis fere stellatis pubescentibus ; floribus

solitariis aut geminis, longiusculis, pedunculatis, calyce obco-

nico, acute 5-dentato, pubescente, corolla pilosa.—v. s. in herb.

Hook. (Mendoza) Gillies sub nomine L. affine MSS.

The leaves have a yellowish hue when dried ; they are from 5

to 7 lines long, 13 to 13 line broad, the petiole being almost

obsolete : the peduncle is erect, 2 lines long, the very pubescent

calyx 1+ line long; the tube of the corolla is 13 lme long, thick,

and contracted at base, where it is surrounded by a densely

tomentose ring; the segments of the border are 2 lines long,

oblong, and extremely pubescent.

66. Lycium Grevilleanum, Gill. MSS. (n. sp.);—imerme, ramis

griseis, ramulis pallidis, striatis, pubescentibus; foliis e nodis

cupulatis fasciculatis, vel solitariis, spathulato-lanceolatis, vel

linearibus, apice calloso submucronatis, margine cartilagineo,

carnosis, utrinque ramulisque pilis brevissimis rigidiusculis

brachiatis pubescentibus ; floribus e fasciculis solitariis, pubes-

centibus, pedunculo tenui, calyce poculiformi, 5-dentato, den-

tibus acutis, corolle tubo imo coarctato annulo barbato cincto,

infundibuliformi, limbi laciniis ovato-oblongis, staminibus in-

clusis, nzequalibus, filamentis in coarctationem tubi insertis,

hine glandula lineari levi marge dense fimbriata donatis,

imo geniculatis, inde glabris, 2 faucem attingentibus, 3 paullo

longioribus ; stylo subexserto; bacca ovata, sicco fusco-brun-

nea, calyce suffulta——In Provinciis Mendoze et Tucuman

Argentinorum.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (El Tortoral. L. Grevil-

leanum, Gill. MSS.)

This plant is of straggling bushy habit, and grows abundantly

in the moist pasturages to the southward of Mendoza. It much

* ‘This is shown with floral analysis (loc. cit.), plate 73 D.

+ A figure of this variety with sectional details is given (/oc. cit.),

plate 73 E,

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 343

resembles ZL. scoparium, and might almost be considered as a

variety of that species, which is equally abundant in drier places ;

it differs however in having the stamens and style much shorter.

The leaves are 5 lines to 1 inch long, 1 to 1 line broad: the pe-

duncle measures 3 lines ; the calyx, 24 lines long, is divided nearly

half-way into five narrow acute erect teeth; the corolla much

resembles that of LZ. Chilense in form, size, and colour, and is

equally pubesceut externally, the tube being 1} line, and the seg-

ments of the border 2 lines in length; the tube a little above its

base is much constricted, fleshy, and clothed by a densely barbate

ring: the stamens are inserted a little above the constricted

portion of the tube, where they are geniculated and glabrous ;

above this they are each furnished with an adnate fimbriated

linear gland, forming together a fornix, that closes the mouth of

the corolla over the ovary; the berry is nearly 4 lines long and

3 lines broad*.

67. Lycium erosum (n. sp.) ;—inerme, ramosum, ramulis graci-

libus, virgatis, pallidis, striatis, nodis cupuliformibus ; foliis

alternis, lanceolato-ellipticis, acutiusculis, versus basin atte-

nuatis, vel interdum rotundatis, breviter petiolatis, margine

erosis, pilisque glandulosis ciliatis, vetustioribus utrinque

glabris et punctis minutissimis elevatis albidis rugosis, Junio-

ribus pubescentibus ; floribus solitariis pedunculatis, calycis

laciniis 5 acutissimis subulato-linearibus tubo brevi costato

duplo longioribus, margine ciliatis, smubus rotundatis, mem-

branaceis, eorolla czrulea, lineis violaceis venosis, tubo brevi

imo coarctato et annulo dense barbato extus cincto, limbi laci-

nus 5 oblongis tubo 3-plo longioribus, stammibus 5 longe

exsertis, filamentis e coarctatione basali orta, hine infra glan-

dulam dilatatam crassam margine dense barbatam geniculatis,

3 limbo zquilongis, 2 paullo brevioribus ; bacca oblonga, calyce

suffulta——Frayle Muerto, Prov. Buenos Ayres.—v. v.

Specimens of this very distinct species exist also in Sir Wm.

Hooker’s herbarium, collected by Tweedie in Buenos Ayres,

Uruguay, Entre Rios, Banda Oriental, and the banks of the river

Parana. It is readily distinguished by its rather large alternate

leaves covered with minute white spots, with its margins always

unevenly jagged ; they are from 4 lines to 13 inch long, inclu-

ding the short petiole, and from 38 to 6 lines broad; they are

sometimes small and more ovate; the older leaves are glabrous,

those in the younger axils are large and generally alternate : the

peduncle is 23 or 3 lines long; the calyx including its segments

_ * This plant, with analytical structure of the flower, is shown (/oc. cif.)

in plate 73 F.

344 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

is 2 lines long ; the tube of the corolla is 2 lines, the lobes of its

border 8 lines long; the tube is encircled in its constricted part

by a narrow densely pilose rmg, and is bearded internally be-

tween the insertion of the stamens; the filaments are thick,

fleshy, and geniculated at their origin below the fleshy glands,

which form a fornix closing the mouth of the corolla: the berry

is crimson, oval, supported by the cup-shaped calyx with its teeth

reflexed ; it is 3 lines long and 2 lines broad*.

Species incerte sectionis.

68. Lycium Gilliesianum (n. sp.). L. rigidum, Gill. MSS. non

Thunb. ;—imbricato-ramosum, spinosum, ramulis valde flexu-

osis, griseo-glaucis, spinis validis, longiusculis, divaricatis,

approximatis, foliferis ; folus fasciculatis, glaberrimis, car-

nosis, spathulato-oblongis, obtusis, m petiolum brevissimum

attenuatis ; floribus solitariis aut geminis, pedunculo glabro,

folio tertio vel dimidio breviorl ; bacca ovali, calyce 5-dentato

suffulta—Prov. Mendozee.—v. s. in herb. Hook. Copuncoa

(Gillies MSS.).

This is a very distinct species, much resembling L. fuscum, and

in all probability is referable to the same section : the branchlets

are very flexuose and thick ; the strong axillary spines, which are

about } an inch apart, and 1 or 13 inch long, bear fascicles of

leaves at intervals of every 2 or 3 lines; the leaves are 4 to 7

lines long and 1 line broad; the peduncle is 2 lines long, the

calyx about 13 line in length; the dark-coloured berry 3 lines

long and 2 lines in diameter: flowers are wanting in the only

specimen I have seen.

69. Lycium Americanum, Jacq. Stirp. Amer. 50 ;—frutex orgy-

alis, elegans, diffusus, ramis teretibus, tenuibus, longissimis,

leucopheis, spinis axillaribus, validis et folnferis; foliis in

axillis fasciculatis (8-7), cuneato-oblongis, sessilibus, crassi-

usculis ; floribus solitariis, rarius binis, pedunculatis ; calyce

campanulato, «qualiter 5-dentato, corolla pollicari, purpureo-

albida, tubo intundibuliformi calyce duplo longiore, limbi laci-

nis 5, rotundato-ovatis, patentissimis, tubo duplo brevioribus,

staminibus infra faucem insertis, paullo exsertis, filamentis

imo hirsutis, stylo longitudine staminum ; bacca pisello minore,

obcordato-turbinata, nigra, nitidissima, calyce dimidio bre-

viore suffulta.—San Domingo, in arenosis maritimis.

* A drawing of this species with sectional details is given (loc. cit.) m

plate 74 A.

+ A figure of this plant is given (Joe. cit.), plate 74 B.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 345

This species seems to have escaped the notice of botanists,

although published ninety years ago, as I do not find it included

in the lists of any of the earlier authors, nor in Steudel, Walpers,

or yet more modern arrangements. ‘The characters given by

Jacquin appear to conform with those of Lycium: the only

genus with which it is likely to be confounded is Dunalia. It is

described as a handsome shrub with crowded leaves, and its

flowers must be the largest in the genus. From 5 to 7 leaves

are fasciculated in each axil; they are sessile, tapering from the

summit to the base, quite smooth, fleshy, nearly an inch long ;

the calyx is 3 lines long, the corolla is slender and an inch in

length.

Lycia exclusa.

arborescens, Hook.

Barbarum, Lour.

barbatum, Thunb.

. Boerhaavifolium, L.

. campanulatum, EF. Mey.

. canum, Gill.

. aggregatum, R. § P. = Acnistus aggregatus, Miers.

. angustifolium, Mzil.

. apiculatum, Dun.

= Lycium tenue, Willd.

= Lycium cinereum, Thunb.

= Acnistus aggregatus, Miers.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Plectronia ventosa, L.

= Grabowskya Boerhaavifolia.

= Lycium Afrum, L.

= Lycium Chilense, Viers.

Capense, Mill. = Lycium tetrandrum, Thunb.

. capsulare, L. == a genere et ab ordine certe ex-

pellendum.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Salpichroma ciliatum, Miers.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= certe non Lycium ob foliis oppo-

sitis cordatisque.

= Chenesthes cornifolia, Miers.

. Chinense, L.

. ciliatum, Schl.

. Cochinchinense

. cordatum, Mill.

cornifolium, H. B. K.

. distichum, Mey. = e genere et forsan ab ordine re-

pellendum *,

. foetidum, L. = Lerissa feetida.

. floribundum, H. B. K. (non Dun.) = Acnistus floribundus, G. Don.

. fuchsioides, H. B. K.

. fuchsioides, hort.

ssl cal cal ait ol il ol alo) a ol a) of al a) ol a) a] a) ol

= Chenesthes fuchsioides, Miers.

* This plant, found by Meyen in the Cordillera of Southern Peru, has

been referred to Lycium and Grabowskya, but it appears to me that it

cannot belong to either : its long simple distichous patent branches, termi-

nating in a spine, indicate an opposition, not an alternation of its axils and

leaves ; its leaves are deseribed as minute, but not as being clustered or

fascicled; the corolla of its solitary flowers is czruleous, with a large

funnel-shaped limb and small erect segments, together with included sta-

mens. There is little here conforming to Lyciwm or Grabowskya. In its

peculiar habit, its minute leaves, its calyx, the colour and shape of its

flowers, it approaches more closely to the curious Bignoniaceous plant

which I found in the Cordillera of Mendoza, and which I described under

the name of Oxycladus aphyllus, a supposition rendered still more pro-

hable from the analogous locality of its origin.

346

ah al ol a) a) al al al al a a) al al al al al al al 9] al al a) a a) al al ol a) al sl al ol ol a) a) 9) =)! o! pl a a)! a) a)

. gesnerioides, H. B. K.

. gracile, Meyen

. grandiflorum, Willd.

. Guayaquilense, H. B. K.

halimifohum, Mzll.

. heterophyllum, Murr.

horridum, Thunb.

horridum, H. B. K.

Indicum, Retz. (non R. Wight)

. merme, L. f.

. Japonicum, Thunb.

. lanceolatum, Poir.

. Loxense, H. B. K.

macranthum, Buching.

macrophyllum, Benth.

Mediterraneum, Dun.

megistocarpum, Dun.

Meyenianum, N. ab E.

microphyllum, H. B. K.

. microphyllum, Duh.

nutans, Pop.

obovatum, Buching.

. obovatum, R. & P.

obtusum, Willd.

. ovale, Willd.

. ovatum, Willd.

ovatum, Duh.

parvifolium, R. & Sch.

propinquum, G. Don

pulchellum, Mart. § Gall.

Quitense, Hook.

quadrifidum, Mogino et Sessé

Ruthenicum, Dun. (non Murr.)

. seabrum, N. ab E.

. salicifolium, Mii.

. salsum, Bartr. (non R. & P.)

. serpyllifolium, Dun.

. Shaw, R. § Sch.

. Sinense, hort.

. spathulatum, R. & P.

. spathulatum, Math.

subglobosum, Dun.

Thunbergu, G. Don

. Trewianum, Duh.

. turbinatum, Duh.

. umbellatum, R. & P.

. umbrosum, H. B. K.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

= Chenesthes gesnerioides, Miers.

= Lycium salsum, R. & P.

= Acnistus grandiflorus, Miers.

= Acnistus Guayaquilensis, G. Don.

= Lycium barbarum, L.

= Grabowskya Boerhaavifolia, W.-

Arn.

= Lycium tetrandrum, Thunb.

= Lycioplesium horridum, Miers.

= Lerissa foetida, Comm.

= Plectronia ventosa, L.

= Lerissa foetida, Comm.

Lycium vulgare, Dun.

Cheenesthes Loxensis, Miers.

Rhizogum trichotomum, Burch.

Acnistus Benthami, Miers.

= Lycium Europeum, L.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Lycioplesium Meyenianum, Miers.

= Lycioplesium horridum, Miers.

= Lycium carnosum, L.

= Lycium Chilense, Miers.

= Ehretia Capensis, Meisn.

= Lycioplesium obovatum, Miers.

= Chenesthes umbrosa, Miers.

HU Ut Ul

=: Chenesthes cornifolia, Miers.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Lycioplesium pulchellum, Miers.

= Lycium Afrum, L.

= Lycioplesium pulchellum, Miers.

= Peecilochroma Quitense, Miers.

= Lycium Carolianum, Mich.

= Lycium Tataricum, Pall.

= Lycium scoparium? Miers.

= Lycium Europeum, L.

= Lycium Carolianum, Mich.

= Peliostomum serpyllifolium,

Miers.

= Lycium barbarum ? L.

= Lycium ignarum, Miers.

= Acnistus spathulatus, G. Don.

= Dunalia acnistoides, Miers.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Lycium oxycarpum? Dun.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Acnistus umbellatus, Miers.

= Cheenesthes umbrosa, Miers.

On the Occurrence of Hyperoodon bidens. 347

XXXII.—On the Occurrence of the Bottle-headed Whale, Hy-

peroodon bidens, Flem., and Remarks thereon. By Wii.1am

Tuompson, Esq.

I wave lately had an opportunity of carefully examining two

specimens of the Bottle-headed Whale, an old female and a young

female, and now forward you a copy of my notes made on the

spot. The only work on the British Cetacea to which I have

access 1s that by Professor Bell on the British Mammalia, which

includes the Cetacea. In that work I find that the occurrence

of the Bottle-head on the English coast is very rare, and Bri-

tish naturalists are enjoined to “be very careful in examining any

specimens they may have the good fortune to meet with. The

pleasant task has fallen to my lot, and I trust the trouble I have

taken and the accuracy of my measurements will leave nothing

to be wished for on this point. I first carefully measured the

larger of the two, and the following results I confidently offer

to the notice of naturalists. The whole of the measurements

were taken with a tape, and also a two-fvot rule. In all cases,

unless otherwise particularly mentioned, the measurements were

taken from point to point; for instance, in computing the

distance from the snout to the blowhole, the tape was drawn

from one point to the other, and was not laid along the facial

angle. With these remarks I lay before you the measurements.

ft. in.

Extreme length from the end of the snout to the fork of the

CRRGMI ecMaresa ota cescedescinatdisaos socaeideedas sae otessectecceecese=ts 2 a

Length of the tips of the caudal beyond the fork ............... 0 8

(Thus making the length 24 ft. 8 inches.)

Length from the end of the snout to the Gh (rnonosesugusnc nsec oe lO

Length from the end of the snout to the pectoral ............... Gia

Length from the end of the snout to the dorsal ................4. 14 6

Length from the end of the snout and following the line of the

pellyvato the welvarsstrile..dcsrecsssts sees ecdscexccecessees: saciid ome i6 4

Length from caudal to the back edge of the dorsal ............ Te 5

Length frompcandal/tontmerviullyas. ceea-seeseccessscccesceseenceneeecs. LONE

Length of upper mandible from the tip of the snout to the

angle GGG MMOL ov por ccopeaccaosscadcosnskcacnesteccaccdserereses 2 4

Length of under mandible from the tip of the snout to the

HUE OLE AHOUEM HN) 226s. ee scab tes ewSedhcsatasvedewesdsendaceo’s 26

Hength of blowhole from tip’ to tip). .c.ccatoce..acscceiteccessets 0 6

Distance of blowhole from the tip of the snout ....... asaseists: 4 10

MXGent OheaIeAl MOR Cup FOL CUP. facies nnuineceseceanccyenndnasacases 6 0

eneiie Of dorsal at tis UASG. (2c es cep se nareclerscsenerse ce Seances sess: A

Height of dorsal at its back edge~..0..5..0.iccccocsscetcseseeeceeess bie,

Length of pectoral, including the portion that is not free ...... 2.10

Breauth of pectoral in its widest part ........cecsscesecsecssseneeee 0 10

(The widest part is | ft. 4 in. from the tip of the fin.)

CHEE RMOD VULVA vanacaeacacecen somitaater tne isocmeacde estes es + oad ens oe 2G

348 Mr. W. Thompson on the Occurrence

ft. in

Length of eye-opening .....0....-csssccesscceccscecenaserencecesorcess 0 2

Width Of eye-Gpening: (lii.i. 05.15. cscesecescocsccresodeccesneasetasvac 0 02

Distanee frOim Ye tOrar «25 ..o.cs+es ses ceccevaesvesassceusansinessdecs 0 7%

Depth of the mandibles at the base .............s-ssscssecceeeeceres 0.9

Weptl ob forehead) 5.00 csccs.scccncsce se nsaemcccaesorenes Babosd oceans Teo

Vere latateliond 0c eaten cen spicurss sieqqaacigdaiensiane=s ssn oecuee eens eeaee Bats!

POC PHLAGe Solas ae a-.uciiieise daowatieis -Aouteansoh- ss sue seb =scnced-nes 0-5

Witclihnor lower mandible cserctersnslceeiactississniceseseessiecne seit 0 5

Cireumference of upper mandible — ......-..cecceesssencecerssescees 16

Circumferenceof lowermandible: .. 152; sachaise neces eae ccseseoes Ih fe

Circumference of body at the pectoral ....00......seeceeeeesceecrere 11 10

Circumference in front of the dorsal — ...............seceeeeeeeceees UD 4

Circumference behind the dorsal ............+.scccsesscccsscescecaes 5710

@ireumference at base of the caudal <..2.....cccce-.cccccseeesesse fay ey

The greatest circumference, which was exactly 9 ft. 3 in. from

the: fapof the snout: 6. sc.6. -micem cleanin smeddae nc eloiases enteline= ois 13 8

The measurements are very numerous, but I was most anxious

to leave nothing undone or in doubt.

In the specimen I am now describing, which is the larger of

the two, the forehead is very high and more perpendicular

than in Mr. Bell’s figure in the ‘ British Mammalia,’ but

which otherwise gives a very good idea of the animal; it re-

minded me of that part in a King Charles’s spaniel. The snout

was 14 inches in length, rounded at the end; the sides of it were

appressed. The palate, as well as the surface of the lower jaw,

were crowded with small tubercles, which, as well as the whole

of that portion, were extremely hard to the touch; but as the

animals were caught the day previous to that on which I ex-

amined them, the hardness might have partly arisen from their

having become dry: I could not detect anything that would in-

duce me to suppose them to be rudimentary vestiges of whale-

bone. I sought carefully for teeth, but could find none whatever,

neither could I feel any in the gums ; they were in fact wanting.

Under the lower jaw, the position of the inferior maxille 1s

marked by a suture running their whole length and united

together at the chm. The tongue was very large, short, and

rounded, and reaches to within 13 inches from the tip of the

snout ; it appears to be a bag of skin, contaming blubber and not

flesh, and was of a purplish colour. The blowhole is in the shape

of a crescent with the horns turned forwards, and not backwards

as stated in Bell and Jenyns; the orifice is covered with a skin

valve. The dorsal, which is very small for the size of the ani-

mal, and which can be of but little if any use, is placed consi-

derably nearer the tail than the head ; it melines backwards at

an acute angle, and has its posterior edge (which is on a line

with the centre of the vulva) much hollowed out. The body for

the distance of about 4 feet from the base of the caudal is com-

pressed at the sides, and runs off to a keel on both back and

of Hyperoodon bidens. 349

belly. The caudal, which as in all whales is placed horizontally,

is not hollowed out to any great extent: by means of a line

stretched from tip to tip, I found that in the middle it was

hollowed out to the depth of 8 inches. The pectorals are also

very small and terminate in an acute angle ; they are placed on

a line with the under side of the mandibles, and are 3 feet apart ;

the length of the free portion is about 18 inches. The vulva

and the anus are evternal/y apparently in one, but in the calf

they are quite distinct. The mamme were small, and measured

longitudinally 3 ches ; in the middle of each was a hole in which

you could insert a finger ; they were very short, not half an inch

in length, and appeared composed of wrinkled skin; they were

placed one on each side of, and in immediate proximity to, the

anus. That portion of the vulva which was exposed to view

measured 2 feet m length, and was composed of soft wrinkled

skin, very baggy and of a deep lead-colour. Milk was oozing

from the teats, from which we may infer that the calf was not

completely weaned; the milk was creamy and yellowish, appa-

rently very rich. The belly was blackish-gray, deepening to

half-way up each side; the remainder of the body was of a dark

brown, nearly black ; the head and snout are of a much lighter

brown than the rest of the body, and have a yellowish tinge. The

eye, which is small in comparison with the size of the animal, is

of the same size as in the young one. At the base of the snout

and of the forehead I noticed some extraordinary markings. The

marks consisted of several circles about half an inch in diameter ;

on the outside these circles were placed most irregularly, some

being an inch apart, and others being clustered together and

overlying each other. Each circle was composed of eight or ten

small circles about the size of a pin’s head: the regularity dis-

played in each circle was such, that at the first glance it appeared

as if they had all been made by one and the same stamp; on

consideration it struck me that the marks might have been

caused by the whale louse, one of which I found on the younger

whale.

The whale calf measured 16 ft. 8 in. in length; from tip of

snout to eye 2 ft. 6 im.; snout to blowhole 2 ft. 10 in. ; snout

to blowhole, measured along the curve of the forehead, 2ft.113 in.;

blowhole to dorsal 7 ft. 8 in. ; the attached end of the pectorals

are 1 ft. 7 in. apart ; length of vulva 8 in.; distance from vulva

to anus 831m. No appearance of mamme. The eye is the same

size as in the old whale. The snout is shorter in proportion, and

the body darker. The whales had unfortunately been kept too

long before they were cut up; one in fact burst, from the quan-

tity of gas that had accumulated, and this was rendered worse

in consequence of its not having been bled. The flesh was of

350 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

a deep red, nearly black, but as it had not been bled, this might

have made some difference. The intestines I did not see, but

was informed they were not of very great bulk and scarcely

filled a wheelbarrow. The blubber laid the thickest at the

middle of the body, where it was 3 inches in depth. The fore-

head under the layer of blubber consisted of a fatty substance

very rich in oil; from it ran a large quantity of pure and limpid

oil. A quantity of oil ran from the mouth, and falling on the

ground coagulated, and had the appearance of salad oil in a

frozen state.

They were both caught on the 2nd of October, having run

ashore within a few hundred yards of each other in Portland

Roads ; the calf was first secured.

Weymouth, Oct. 13, 1854.

XXXITI.— On the Primitive Diversity and Number of Animals in

Geological Times. By Li. AGassiz*.

THERE is a view generally entertained by naturalists and geolo-

gists, that genera and species of animals and plants are far more

numerous in the present age of the world than at any previous

geological period. This seems to me an entire misconception

of the character and diversity of the fossils which have been dis-

covered in the different geological formations, and to rest upon

estimates which are not made within the same limits and with

the same standard. Whenever a comparison of the diversity and

number of fossils of any geological period has been made with

those of the living animals and plants belonging to the same

classes and families, it has been done under the tacit assumption,

which seems to me entirely unjustifiable, that the fossils formerly

inhabiting our globe are known to the same extent as the animals

which live at present upon its surface; while it should be well

understood, that however accurate our knowledge of fossils may

be, it has been restricted, for each geological formation, to a few

circumscribed areas. Comparisons of fossil with living animals

ought, therefore, to be limited to geographical districts corre-

sponding in extent to those in which the fossils occur ; or, more

properly, a fossil fauna with all its local peculiarities ought to

be compared with a corresponding fauna of the present period,

and not with all the animals of the same class living at present

upon the whole surface of the globe. And when this is done with

sufficient care, and proper allowance is made for the limited time

during which investigations of fossils have been carried on com-

* From Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Arts for May 1854.

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 351

pared with that which has been almost everywhere devoted to

the careful study of living animals, it will be seen that the num-

ber and diversity of species peculiar to each special fossil fauna

is, in most instances, equal to those found to characterize zoological

provinces of similar boundaries at the present day. And this

may be said of the fossil faunze of all ages. In many instances

the result is even quite the reverse of what is generally supposed

to be the fact, for there are distinct fossil faunz which have

yielded much larger numbers of species, presenting a greater

variety of types than any corresponding fauna in the present age.

Some examples will justify this perhaps unexpected statement.

The number of species of shells which are found living along

the shores of Europe does not exceed 600. About 600 species,

again, is the number assigned to the whole basin of the Mediter-

ranean, including both the European and African coasts. Now

the most superficial comparison between them and the fossil

species which occur in the lower tertiary beds in the vicinity of

Paris, shows the latter to exceed twice that number ; in fact,

1200 species of fossil shells are now known from the eocene

beds in the immediate vicinity of Paris, affording at once a very

striking evidence of the existence of a greater diversity and

greater number of species at that geological period, even when

compared with those of a wider geographical area, than at the

present day.

If it be objected that the variety of forms which occur in tro-

pical faune is greater than that which we observe on the shores

of our temperate regions, and that the temperature of the tertiary

period having been warmer we may expect a larger number of

fossil species from those deposits, I would only refer to local

enumerations of marine shells from several tropical regions to

sustain my assertion, that the number of fossil shells from the

eocene beds of the zmmediate vicinity of Paris, is much greater

than that of any local fauna of the present period, even within

the tropics. A catalogue of not quite 300 species of shells given

by Dufo as occurring around the Seychelles Islands, the extent

of which may fairly be compared with that of the lower tertiary

beds around Paris, will suffice to show, that, in a tropical local

fauna, the number of species known to exist in the present day

is far inferior to the number of species known to have existed

during the deposition of the lower tertiary beds in the vicinity

of Paris. Another catalogue by Sganzin, of the shells found

about Mauritius, Bourbon and Madagascar, gives also less than

300 species for the extensive range of seas surrounding those

islands. Let us further compare the results of the investigations

of the shells of the Red Sea by Hemprich, Ehrenberg and Riip-

pell, and there again we find a smaller number, and a more limited

352 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

variety of types, than are found in the tertiary of Paris; for the

whole basin of the Red Sea has hitherto yielded only 400 species

of shells. Let us finally take the most accurate survey of this

kind that we have of any shore, that of Panama by Prof. Adams,

extending over 50° of latitude, 28° N. of the equator and 22° 8.

of it, including the most favourable localities for the growth of

shells in the Pacific under the tropics, and yet we shall find his

list exceeding but little the number of 500 species. In this

instance, again, we find that the advantage in number and variety

is in favour or the tertiary period, and not of the present age.

If a different result has been obtained by the estimates made

before this, it is owing to the circumstance that the fossils known

from a few localities within narrow geographical limits were com-

pared with the living species known to occur upon the whole sur-

face of the globe. But let us trace these comparisons through

other geological periods, with reference to other classes also, and

we shall find in every instance similar results. The tertiary fos-

sils of Bordeaux, though less numerous in species than those of

the eocene in the vicinity of Paris, will compare with any local

fauna of the present period as favourably for variety and number

of species as those of the lower tertiaries. This may be said with

the same certainty of the tertiary shells of the Subapennine hills,

or of those of the English Crag, of which we now possess a very

complete list.

If from the tertiary periods we pass down to the cretaceous,

do we not find in the deposits of Maestricht, or in those of the

age of the white chalk, a number and variety of shells as great

as that which may be found on any shore or im any circumscribed

marine basin of an extent at all comparable with that of the cre-

taceous beds within similar limits? Do we not find in the lower

cretaceous strata, such as the greensand or the Neocomian, other

assemblages of the remains of mollusks, which m number and

variety are not inferior to those of the white chalk? The oolitic

series, again, will stand a similar comparison quite as well. We

need not even take the whole group of those deposits, but con-

sider each subdivision of the jurassic period by itself, and still

we find in every one, local faunze of mollusks, assuming, of

course, a different character from those of the cretaceous or

tertiary, but nevertheless sufficiently diversified to admit of an

estimate, as advantageous, with respect to the points under con-

sideration, and to the local faunz of the present day, as the

cretaceous assemblages of fossils, or those of the tertiary period.

Of course, in accordance with the peculiar character of the age,

different families prevail in these different periods ; the Cepha-

lopoda are extremely numerous, and surprisingly diversified

during the cretaceous and oolitic periods; while they dwindle

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 353

down to a few representatives in the tertiaries, and so with other

families. The shells found in the deposits of the new red sand-

stone period, of the coal period, and of the still earlier ages, are

perhaps less numerous on the whole, though they can hardly be

said to be less diversified; for the extinct forms which occur

among them are quite an equivalent to the variety of families

which have lived during more recent periods; and the daily

increase of the species found in the different palzeozoic deposits

shows that, even in point of numbers, those ancient faunz may,

even in the present state of our knowledge, be compared with

local faunze of similar extent at the present day.

Desirous of making the most accurate comparison possible

between the subdivisions of the paleeozoic formations of the State

of New York with local faune of similar extent in the present

seas, I have requested Professor J. Hall to furnish me with sum-

mary indications respecting the results of his extensive investi-

gations in this field, and I have obtained from him the following

statement :-—

“T regard the Potsdam and Calciferous sandstone as discon-

nected with the groups above, forming of themselves with their

fauna (not yet well known in this country) a distinct geological

period. The entire number of species thus far known in these

rocks, admitting all of Owen’s species, is, however, only twenty-

SIX.

“The Chazy limestone has 45 species restricted to itself, and

one other species which is also known in the Black River lime-

stone. The Birdseye limestone has 19 species restricted to itself,

and two others which pass upwards. The Black River lime-

stone has 13 species restricted to itself, and one common to it

and the Chazy limestone, one common to it and Birdseye, and

one common to it and the Trenton; and one other, which is

common to the beds below and above, extending into the Hud-

son River group,” making together 81 species for these three

sets of beds.

“The Trenton limestone has 188 species restricted to itself,

and 30 species passing upwards into the Hudson River group.

The entire number of species known as occurring in the Trenton

limestone, including those which occur in rocks above and below,

is about 230. This statement includes some species discovered

since the publication of the first volume of the ‘ Palzontology

of New York,’ and which would make the restricted species

about 200.

“The Hudson River group, including Utica slate, has about

60 restricted species, besides those which are common to it and

the rocks below, making altogether about 100 species.

“ You will observe that the development of life at the Trenton

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 23

354 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

period has been far the most marked, though it is true that this

formation is much thicker than either of the preceding lime-

stones, the Chazy being the thickest, and the Black River the

thinnest of the three below the Trenton.

“Tn that portion of the upper Silurian period included in the

second volume of the ‘ Paleontology of New York,’ the fossils of

the Medina sandstone, Clinton group, Niagara and Onondaga

salt groups, amount to 3841. Medina and Clinton groups, 128

species. Niagara and Onondaga salt group, 218 species.

“The Medina sandstone and arenaceous beds of the Clinton

group contain 50 species, leaving for the calcareous beds of the

Clinton group 73 species, which, added to the 218 species of the

Niagara and Onondaga salt groups, give 291 species as the total

number of species of the calcareous beds of these groups. The

Niagara is here the more important period, and though not

thicker than either of the others, contains about 200 species

restricted to itself. Of the Niagara group 67 species are Corals

and Bryozoa. Of the 73 species from the calcareous beds of the

Clinton group, 19 are Corals and Bryozoa.

“Tn the lower Helderberg group, including the Water lime,

Pentamerus limestone, Delthyris shaly limestone, aud upper

Pentamerus limestone, I expect to describe about 200 species,

exclusive of Corals and Bryozoa, of which I know already about

50 species.

“The Oriskany sandstone may contain about 60 species of

fossils altogether, perhaps less.

“Jn the upper Helderberg group, which is the next great

calcareous formation, I anticipate a less number of species except

Corals and Bryozoa, of which there are more than 100 species

in New York and the western localities. Of all that is yet known

in these limestones besides Corals and Bryozoa, it would be un-

safe for me to estimate more than 100 species.

“From the Hamilton, Portage, and Chemung groups I anti-

cipate at least 300 species within New York, and I shall not be

surprised if more complete investigations produce double that

number in New York and the West.

“The number of species given here I regard as only approxi-

mative. I hope this general statement may meet your present

requirements, but I megres that I cannot now give you more

definite information, particularly regarding the upper Helderberg.

I give you from this and the higher groups an estimate based on

the species known to me at the present time, but my final inves-

tigations always reveal a greater number than I anticipate.”

These statements of Professor Hall place already each of the

principal groups of rocks of the State of New York in the cate-

gory of distinct independent successive faunz, each equivalent

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 355

to as many local faune of the present period ; for we may repeat,

that the fauna of the Seychelles contains only 258 species, and

that of Mauritius, Bourvon and Madagascar, 275. Nay, upon

3000 miles of coast along the western shores of the American

continent within the tropics, only twice the number of living

species have been obtained as occur respectively m each succes-

sive greater subdivision of the paleeozoic system within the nar-

row limits of the State of New Yoik only. (See above the results

of Professor Adams’s investigations upon the coast of Panama.)

It is a most unexpected and very significant coincidence, that

the late admirable investigations of Elie de Beaumont upon the

mountain systems have led him to the recognition of nearly ten

times as many periods of great disturbance io the physical con-

stitution of the earth’s surface as he himself knew twenty-five

years ago, each attended by the upheaval of as many mountain

chains, differing in their main direction. The snvestigations of

paleontologists having an entirely different character, and founded

upon facts which until recently have apparently had only a re-

mote connexion with the other series of phenomena, have never-

theless brought them at about the same time to like conclusions

respecting animal life, showing that the periods of disappearance

and renovation of organized beings upon the earth have been

much more frequent than could be supposed even ten years ago,

each set having probably been characteristic of one of those long

periods of comparative rest intervening between two great suc-

cessive geological cataclysms.

What is true of Mollusca may be said of all other classes.

Among Radiata, are not the coral reefs or the palozoic ages as

rich in species as any coral reef of the Pacific? Let us even

compare the most extensive lists of corals yet given as belonging

to any circumscribed locality,—those of the Red Sea as described

by Ehrenberg, those of the Feejee Islands as described by Prof.

J. D. Dana,—and let us inquire whether the paleozoic rocks of

the State of New York do not show as great a variety and as

large a number of species in their successive reefs. Again, have

not the coral reefs of the oolitic period in Normandy, or in the

Jura of Switzerland, and the Alp of Wurtemberg, increased our

lists of fossils as largely, and introduced into our zoological works

as various forms as are knowu from any of the most diversified

coral regions in the world at the present day ?

Passing from the corals to the Echinoderms, the question may

be reversed, and it may be fairly asked, whether there is any sea-

shore extending over ten and tens of degrees of longitude and

latitude, even under the tropics, which has yielded as large a

number of those Radiata, as occur in almost any of the geolo-

gical formations? The number of Crinoids found in the single

23%

356 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

set of beds known under the name of Niagara limestone, equals

the whole number of Echinoderms found around all the coast of

the United States. The Crinoids, Echini, and Star-fishes of the

oolitic period, or any of the subdivisions of that formation, sur-

pass the number of species of that class which may be gathered

around the coast of entire continents in the present day. The

diversity of forms of these animals, comparing them with those

of the cretaceous periods, is equally great, though the Crinoids

begin to diminish in number. But the variety of Spatangoids

and Clypeastroids which come into play compensate largely for

the diminution of the family of Crinoids.

The type of Articulata may seem, in the present condition of

our knowledge, to form an unanswerable objection to the broad

statement I have made above, for the hundred thousands of

insects which are known in the present creation will hardly allow

a comparison with the fossils. But let us examine, upon the

principles by which we have been guided in the preceding com-

putations, what is the true state of things respecting the occur-

rence of Articulata in former geological periods. We can, of

course, hardly expect to find worms well preserved in geological

formations, on account of the softness of their body, which will

scarcely allow of preservation to a greater degree than Meduse.

But a few instances in which impressions of these animals have

been found justifies the assertion that they existed as well in

former periods as now. The impressions of Meduse found in

the lithographic limestone of Solenhofen, which are preserved in

the museum of Carlsruhe, not only carry back the existence of

this class to the Jurassic period, but justify the question whether

a large number of the fossil Polypi from older periods, which

have been described as belonging to that class, are not in reality

nurses of Medusze similar to the Campanularie and Sertularie of

the present day, which are now known to be no Polyps, but one

of the alternate generations of Meduse. And as for the worms,

we find in each geological formation, from the oldest to the most

recent, fossil Serpule, or similar solid cases of worms in as large

numbers as we find these animals anywhere at the present day.

And where the existence of Serpule is established by such un-

questionable evidence as that of their calcareous cases, are we not

justified in the inference that those entirely naked worms which

are found everywhere existing with Serpule, had also their cor-

responding representatives during former geological periods ?

With the class of Crustacea the difficulty m the comparison is

already less ; for in the tertiary beds of Sheppey there have been

found a variety of lobsters, shrimps and crabs, which would

favourably compare with the crab fauna of any limited shore in

the present day ; and I doubt very much whether sucha variety

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 357 -

of Crustacea could be collected anywhere on a shore of equal

extent to that of the white chalk of Sussex, as Dr. Mantell has

uncovered in the vicinity of Lewes. For a comparison of the

Crustacea of the oolitic period, I would only refer the sceptic to

the monograph of the Crustacea of Solenhofen by Count Minster,

who has figured from that single locality more species than are

known in the whole basin of the Mediterranean, excluding the

minute species which have not yet been sought for among the

fossils.

In earlier geological ages, during the deposition of the coal

and other palzozoic rocks, the class of Crustacea presents a very

different character. The gigantic Entomostraca and the extinct

family of Trilobites take the place of the lobsters and crabs of

later periods. But paleontological works illustrating the fossils

of Sweden, Russia, Bohemia, England and France, have made

us acquainted with as great a variety of species of those families

as are found of the later representatives of the class in more

modern deposits. So that among Articulata, the class of Crus-

tacea may be said to have been at all periods as largely repre-

sented, and to have shown as great a variety of forms, as occur

anywhere within similar limits in the present time.

The carcinological fauna of the whole Indian Ocean scarcely

exceeds in variety or number of species that of Bohemia alone,

as it is now known by the admirable investigations of M. Barrande.

From their minuteness and general structure, insects might

be excepted in such a comparison without affording a sufficient

argument against the view I have taken of the subject, even if

insects had nowhere been found in large numbers in a fossil state ;

‘for it must be plain that their preservation requires more favour-

able circumstances than the preservation of other animals more

largely provided with solid parts. But though the fossil insects

have not been sufficiently investigated in all geological forma-

tions, have we not several examples which show that in some

geological periods, at least, they were as numerous as in the

present day? The beautiful monograph of Behrens, of the in-

sects which occur in amber, shows how varied these animals

were during the period of the formation of that gum; and the

unparalleled investigations of Professor Oswald Heer upon the

insects of (iringen and Radoboj have furnished us with means

of comparisons which show that, during the deposition of the

Molasse of Switzerland, the insects were as numerous and as

diversified there as they are anywhere in our day within similar

boundaries. And the fragmentary information which we already

possess upon the insects of Aix in Provence, and those of (Enin-

gen, will justify the expectation that insects will finally be found

very numerous in all the geological periods from that of the

358 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

carboniferous deposit to the present day; that is to say, ever

since terrestrial vegetation has had an extensive development.

The discoveries by ‘Hugh Miller of true trees in the old red

sandstone will justify {he prophecy that insecis will be found,

some day or other, even among palzeozoic rocks older than the

coal period.

But what of the Vertebrata? Is there not evidence that, at

the present day, they are more diversified and more numerous ?

Here, again, I answer decidedly, No; granting only that there

are periods during which the higher classes of these types did

not exist, and that theretore, as a type, the Vertebrata of the

present day are more diversified; but the individual classes,

from the time of their appearance, “have been as numerous and

even as various 1n each former period as they are at present.

Let us apply to these the same measure which we have applied

to the Radiata, Mollusca and Articulata, to justify this assertion,

which seems so completely at variance with our knowledge of

fossil Vertebrata. Fishes oceur, as is well known, in all eeolo-

gical formations. But should we compare the fossil fishes of

each geological period, as they are known ‘from a few localities,

with the whole number of fishes which exist all over the world

in our day? lt would be as unpbilosophical as it would be m-

consistent with our knowledge of the geographical distribution

of animals. Like all other living beings, fishes are located

within definite boundaries, and it will be but fair to compare

the fossil species of a given locality with the special ichthyolo-

gical faunze which occur in different oceans, or in different fresh-

water basins. Now with this rule we may institute a comparison

of the fossil fishes with the living ones, with reference to their

number as well as to their variety.

The number of species of fossil fishes known at present from

the tertiary deposits,in a single spot, upon the Island of Sheppey,

is greater than the number of fishes which have been collected

around the coast of any of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, as

far as we know the local ichthyological faune of those regions ;

it is as great nearly as the whole number of fishes known from

the shores of Great Britam. The same may be said of the fishes

of Monte Bolea, or of Mount Lebanon, or of those of the white

chalk of England, or of those of Solenhofen, or of those of the .

lias of Lyme Regis; and if we pass to older deposits, to the old

red sandstone even,—thanks to Mr. Miller, and to the investiga-

tions of other British and Russian seologists,—do we not Ine

from that old formation as many fishes as from any of the more

recent ones, or from any circumscribed marine basin? and is not

the variety which occurs among them at each period as great,

though of a different character in each, as the variety which

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 359

occurs at the present day? So that it can be fairly said, that at

all periods fishes have presented as great a variety of forms, and

aS numerous species, as under corresponding circumstances at

the present day.

The class of Reptiles will allow similar conclusions ; for though

the giants of the class have chiefly been studied, do they not in-

dicate an abundance, and a variety of these animals during the

upper secondary formations as great as in any tropical region ?

and have we not sufficient indications among the tertiaries to be

justified in expecting that they also will turn out to be more

numerous than they are now known to be?

The class of Birds seems to form an exception in this view.

But there seems to be particular reason why the bones of birds

should be more Jiable to destruction and decomposition than

those of other Vertebrata. And whoever has traced the discoveries

made recently among the fossils of this class, will certainly not

insist upon a supposed scarcity of birds in former periods, but

rather be inclined to admit that the limited number now known

is to be ascribed to the deficiency of our knowledge rather than

to a want of thesé animals in earlier formations, indications of

their presence having been ascertained for several tertiary forma-

tions, for cretaceous deposits, and even for deposits belonging

to periods older than the chalk.

Fossil Mammalia are comparatively too well known to call for

many remarks after what has been said above. Let us only

remember that the number of fossil species found in Brazil alone

equals the whole number of Mammalia known to live at present

in that country; that the fossil Mammalia of New Holland com-

pare already favourably with the living species of that continent ;

and that the locality of Montmartre alone has yielded as many

large Mammalia as occur all over Europe, and the Mauvaises

Terres in Nebraska as many as may be found in North America

now. So that, if we grant simply that among Vertebrata the

diversity has been increasing with the successive introduction of

their different classes, the number and diversity of these differ-

ent classes at each period have been as great as they are at

present.

These facts are of the utmost importance with reference to the

great question of the order of succession and gradation of animals

in the different geological periods. They cut away for ever one

of the arguments upon which the assertors of the development

theory have insisted most emphatically. Before it could be

granted that the great variety of types which occur at any later

period has arisen from a successive differentiation of a few still

earlier types, it should be shown that in reality in former periods

the types are fewer and less diversified ; and we have now shown

360 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

that this is so far from beimg the case, that im many instances

the reverse is really true. I have already attempted elsewhere

to show in outlines what is the real order of succession of the

great types of the animal kingdom; I need not therefore repeat

here what may be gathered from the diagram at the head of the

Zoological Text Book I have published joimtly with Dr. Gould.

I shall limit myself to a few more general remarks upon the

special difficulties involved in a more thorough investigation of

the subject.

The study of the order of succession and gradation of the

organized beings which have inhabited our globe at different

periods, presents indeed difficulties of more than one kind. Un-

happily, these difficulties have seldom been all considered in their

natural connexion by those who have ventured to consider the

subject in its whole extent; thus presenting certain results as

general which would require various qualifications to be true.

In comparing fossils of one and the same, or of different geolo-

gical formations, it is in reality not enough to ascertain their true

geological horizon, which we may call the chronological element

of the inquiry; it is equally important that the differences or

resemblances arising from the geographical distribution over the

wide expanse of the whole surface of the globe, which we may

call the topographic element of the question, should be also con-

sidered, for it is already known that, within certain limits, the

same differences and resemblances which are observed at present

between the animals inhabiting different parts of the globe existed

already in former geological periods. We must therefore become

acquainted with the general biological character of the epoch as

well as with the /ocal faune of each period. The tertiary faunze

of New Holland and the Brazils, for instance, resemble more

closely the living faunz of those parts of the world than they

resemble one another. Our lists of fossils teem with chronolo-

gical errors of the worst kind, arising partly from false identifi-

cations of strata, which in reality belong to different periods,

but the fossils of which are thus represented as having inhabited

our globe simultaneously, when im reality they may have been

separated by long periods of time, and existed upon the earth

under very different physical conditions. This chronological

confusion is further increased by the too extensive limits fre-

quently assigned by geologists to the successive groups of rocks

forming the crust of our globe. For instance, when the creta-

ceous or the oolitic formations are considered respectively as m-

divisible natural groups, and the fossils of all their subdivisions

are enumerated in one single list as the inhabitants of a long

period, an infinitude of anachronisms are presented to the mind,

which no special mention of localities can rectify ; and until the

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 361

fossils of each of the natural subdivisions of these formations

shall have been grouped together and compared carefully, as I

have attempted to do in my Monographs of the Trigonie and

of the Mye of Switzerland and the adjoining countries, or as

Al. @Orbigny has done, upon a much larger scale, in his

‘Paléontologie Frangaise,’ no correct ideas can be formed re-

specting the succession of animals and plants characteristic of

these long successive periods. I do not believe there is a single

paleontologist, whose opinion is worth having, who can suppose

at this day that any of the animals, the remains of which are

buried in the lias, lived simultaneously with those of the inferior

oolite, or these with those of the Oxford clay, or these with those

of the upper division of the so-called ooltic formation. The

same may be said of the different natural subdivisions of the

cretaceous formation, and of the subdivisions introduced of late

among the palzozoic rocks, by Sir Roderick Murchison and Pro-

fessor Sedgwick, and in America by Professor J. Hall.

But even after this separation of the fossils, the synchronism

of which may be fully established, our task is only fairly begun,

for then must begin the zoological identification of all the species,

which must be correct in every respect before general conclu-

sions can be drawn from it.

In the first place, the specific identity of organic remains is not

so easily ascertained as many geologists would seem to suppose,

if we may judge from their statements; but unless the validity

of a species is sanctioned by a practised zoologist, it cannot be

taken as a basis for sound generalizations in reference to ques-

tions of a purely zoological character. The number of false

identifications which have been accumulated in geological works

is truly frightful. It would, however, be very unjust to accuse

geologists in general of inaccuracy on this account, the fault

is mostly to be traced to other parties from whom the names

were obtained. It should only be understood, that the materials

thus accumulated are no longer fit to be used for the discussion

of the questions which have been raised with the modern pro-

gress of geology, and that a thorough revision of all the identi-

fications made in former years is imperatively demanded by the

modern progress of paleontology. It would, however, be some-

times amusing, were it not actually distressing, to see the manner

in which some geologists deal with fossils, considering them

simply as the characteristics of certaim rocks, and hardly yet

dreaming that there may be such a thing as a special zoology of

the different geological periods, and that during each, local faunze

may have existed with peculiar animals, &c. The ideas about

characteristic fossils are still very crude, and nothing is more

absurd than the complaints about unnecessary multiplication of

362 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

genera and species; as if both genera and species had not a

natural existence, independent of the estimates of naturalists.

It would be just as reasonable for astronomers to complain of

the great number of stars, as for geologists to object to the in-

vestigations of zoologists, on the ground that they lead to the

“making” of “too many species.”

The difficulty with reference to the identification of species is

threefold: 1. different species may be considered as identical ;

2. specimens of the same species in different states of preservation,

or of different age, or sex, &c., may be considered as distinct spe-

cies ; or 38. the same species may have been described by different

authors under different names, and their identity afterwards over-

looked by later writers. Who does not see what amount of error

may accrue from the indiscriminate use of materials which are

not first submitted to a very critical revision in these different

respects, not to speak of the general difficulty of agreeing upon

the limits of specific differences ? With regard to this last point,

however, I would say, that any one who in discussing general

questions would only use materials revised candidly with the

same principles, could not fail to obtain at least uniform results.

And when the results of investigations made upon materials cor-

rected in different ways by different authors are compared with

one another, if these differences ave kept in view, the disagree-

ment in the results would not be found so great as it might other-

wise seem. ‘The astronomers and physicists have long learned

to correct their observations before using them, and to take into

consideration what they call the personal equation of different

observers ;—are we never to learn from them a lesson in the esti-

mation of our respective investigations, and shall our facts for

ever be used without being first corrected for all the possible

causes of error and disagreement? As long as there are differ-

ences of opinion respecting the natural limits of genera and spe-

cies, is it not absolutely necessary to reduce or expand the scale

applied to the investigations of different authors, when using

them for the same purposes, exactly in the same manner as ther-

mometric observations made with the scales of Reaumur or Cel-

sius or Fahrenheit are reduced to the same standard, before

being compared.

In the second place, species must be referred to genera circum-

scribed within the same limits, before they can fairly be compared,

or at least lead to trustworthy general results. As long as cer-

tain bivalve shells of the carboniferous and oolitic series were

referred to the genus Unio, it could appear that the family of

Naiades began its existence at a very early period ; but since the

oolitic species of this kind have been ascertained to differ essen-

tially from our freshwater shells, and to constitute by themselves

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 363

a natural genus more closely allied to Crassaiella than to Unio,

novody thinks any longer of looking for Univos in marine deposits.

As long as certain fossil fishes of the Zechstein and Lias weve

referred to the genera Hsoxw and Cyprinus, the families of which

these genera are the types could be supposed to have extended

their range far beyond the tertiary formations, before which how-

ever no one of ilicir representatives is to be fuund. Before the

Spatangoids were divided into natural geneia, the genus Spa-

tangus was mentioned amoug the fossils of the oolitic as well as

the cretaceous and tertiaiy formations ; now it is restricted to the

last among the fossils and found alsv among the living. I do

not believe that a single genuine species of Gorgonia is found

among the fossil Polypi, and yet that genus appears in the lists

of fossils from the paleozvic period to the present time.

Since it is not my intention to enter here upon a special cri-

ticism of the innumerable errors of this kind still to be found

even 1 modern lists of fossils, I shall not multiply my examples.

These may be sufficient to show how important a correct generic

identification of the fussils may be, in the estimation of the order

of succession of organized bemegs; and I cannot but lament the

utter want of consideration evinced even by many distinguished

palxontologists in this respect, who seem to think that the know-

ledge of species is sufficient in itself to a proper appreciation of

the order of creation, and that genera are arbitrary divisions

established by naiuralisis merely for the sake of facilitating the

study of species, as if the move general relations of living beings

to one another were not as definitely regulated in all their

degrees by the same thinking mind, as the ultimate relations of

individuals to one another.

In the third place, ¢he natural affinities of genera should be ascer-

tained. Unless the gencia are referred to the families to which

they truly belong, unless the rank of these families in their

respective Classes is positively determined, uoless the peculiarities

of structure which characterize them are taken as the foundation

of such an arrangement, and further corroborated by the mode

of development of their respective types, it would be a hopeless

task to attempt to determine the order of succession of the fossils

in different geological formations. Before the Crinoids which

Lamarck placed among the Polyps had been referred to the class

of Echinoderms, nobody could have understood the beautiful gra-

dation so fully ascertained now, which may be traced through all

geological formations among these animals. Before it was ascer-

tained that the little animal described by Thompson as a living

Crinoid, under the name of Peniacrinus europeus, for which

De Blainville established the genus Phytocrinus, is in reality the

young of a Comatula, nobody could have suspected the wonder-

364 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

ful relations which exist between the changes animals now living

undergo during their growth, and the order of succession of en-

tire classes of animals during successive geological ages. As

long as the natural position of Trilobites remained doubtful in

the animal kingdom, the characters of the prototypes of the class

of Crustacea could not be appreciated. Who does not see how

impossible it was for those who classified the Trilobites with the

Chitons to arrive at any sound results respecting the gradation

and order of succession of these animals? whilst now they are

beautifully lmked to the Macrura of the Trias, by the gigantic

Entomostraca of the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. Again,

the knowledge of the embryology of Crustacea gives us a key to

a correct appreciation of the early appearance of the Macrura and

the late introduction of the Brachyura. The removal of the

Bryozoa from among Polypi to the class of mollusks, will entirely

change the aspect and relations of the faune of the paleozoic

rocks. How different, again, would the order of succession of

mollusks appear, were we to adhere to Cuvier’s view of sepa-

rating the Brachiopods, as a class, from the other Acephala, to

which they are now more correctly referred. The vexed question

of the period of appearance of Dicotyledonous plants in the geo-

logical series would have been settled long ago, had it been

placed upon its real foundation. It is not in reality to be argued

upon palzontological evidence chiefly, for it resolves itself in the

main into a botanical question, and the definite answer must de-

pend upon the position finally assigned by botanists to the fami-

lies of Coniferee and Cycadex. If these natural orders of plants

are really allied to the Dicotyledonez, then this type begins with

the palozoic rocks in the Devonian system, and there is no gra-

dation in the order of succession of plants during geological

times. But if the view of Brongniart is more correct, if the

Coniferze and Cycadez have to be separated from the Dicotyle-

donez as Gymnosperme, and if moreover these latter should

prove, as I believe they are, inferior even to the Monocotyle-

done, then we may at once recognize in the vegetable kingdom

a similar gradation of types as among animals. These examples

may suffice to show what is required for a proper imvestigation

of the order of succession of organized beings in the course of

time, and how little confidence the investigations in this field

deserve, which have not been made with due reference to all the

points mentioned above. It is indeed only im the classes, the

structure and embryology of which are equally well understood,

that we are able to discover the laws regulating the succession of

animals and plants in geological formations, and our knowledge

is still too imperfect to carry the investigation into all families

of the animal kingdom. Yet enough is known to leave no

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 365

doubt as to the final result ; we may confidently await the time

when the glory of the wonderful order of creation shall be fully

revealed to us, and this may stimulate us to renewed efforts,

since success depends entirely upon our own exertions.

The geographical distribution of animals only began to be

studied long after systematic zoology had made considerable pro-

gress, but even to this day the limits of the faunze are nowhere

circumscribed with any kind of precision, the principles upon

which they might be determined are in many respects question-

able, and a large number of animals are daily described without

any reference to their natural distribution upon the earth; though

much has already been done since Buffon to place this branch of

our knowledge upon a better foundation, and especially to ascer-

tain the laws regulating the geographical distribution of certain

classes and families considered isolatedly. The point which now

requires particular attention, is the combination of these differ-

ent types within definite regions, and their common circumscrip-

tion within natural zoological provinces. This study would be

particularly important with reference to the comparison of the

local faunze of former geological periods with those of the pre-

sent creation; but since the latter even are comparatively little

known, we must be satisfied to wait for the time when thorough

comparisons shall be possible between the local faune of each

and all geological periods inter se, and with those of other

periods.

In closing this digression, I may sum up my criticism upon

palzontological investigations by saying, that any generalization

respecting the succession of organized beings which is not based

upon materials in which the synchronism and succession of spe-

cies and their geographical distribution are not duly considered,

and in which the identification of species is not made with refer-

ence to sound zoological principles, with due regard to the equal

limitation of genera, and also with reference to our improved

classifications in zoology, is not fit to be trusted. All species

taken into consideration should undergo a revision with reference

to their chronology, their topography, and their zoology ; and in

the last point of view, the range and natural limitation as well as

identity of the species, their generic affinities and their zoological

classification, should be equally tested.

Returning now to the main subject of this paper, I have

further to say, that the very fact that certain stratified rocks,

even among the oldest formations, are almost entirely made up

of fragments of organized beings, should long ago have satisfied

the most sceptical that both animal and vegetable life was as

active and profusely scattered upon the whole globe, at all times and

during all geological periods, as it is now. No coral reef in the

Pacific contains a larger amount of organic debris than some of

366 Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria.

the limestone deposits of the tertiary, of the cretaceous, or of the

oolitic, nay, even of the paleozvic periods ; and the whole vege-

table carpet covering the present suiface of the globe, even if we

were to cousider only the most luxurious vegetation of the tro-

pics, and leave entirely out of consideration the whole expanse

of the ocean, as well as those tracts of land where under less

favourable circumstances che growth of plants is more reduced,

would not form one single seam of workable coal to be compared

to the many thick beds contained in the rocks of the carbo-

niferous period alone.

XXXIV.—Memoranda of Observations made in small Aquaria, in

which the Balance between the Animal and Vegetable Organisms

was permanenily maintained. By Rosert Wanineton, Esq.

Fresh Water.

Memorandum 1.

In my communication, dated September 1852*, I gave a

detailed account of my observatiuns on the thread or web

which some species of the freshwater snail form to effect or

facilitate their passage from one spot or object to another, and

thus either ascending or descending by its means; and the

instances noticed up to that period had reference only to the

varieties of the Limnee. In continuation of my observations

on the same subject, I have now to state that the varieties of

Planorbis, as also Neritina fluviatilis and Physa fontinalis, have,

since that date, been noticed to possess the same power ; and in

the case of the latter, Physa fontinalis, the thread or web was so

tough and strong, that on one occasion I was able, by means of

a small rod introduced between the creature and its point of

attachment, to move it out of its straight course a considerable

distance, and by then slowly drawing the rod upwards, I suc-

ceeded in raising the snail completely out of the water a space

of about 7 inches, suspended by its thread, so that, under these

circumstances, the thread itself became distincily visible.

From the observations which I have been enabled to make, I

consider that I am justified in stating that all the freshwater

snails are possessed of this power.

Memorandum 2.

As an evidence of the permanency of the balance capable

of being established between the animal and vegetable organ-

* Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Oct. 1852.

Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria. 367

isms by the introduction of the water-snail or other phyto-

phagous mollusk, as I have elsewhere described*, I may state

that the same water in which my original experiments were made

im March 1849 has been in continual use up to the present time,

several fish living constantly in it, without disturbance, and that

it is now as bright and in as healthy a state as at the first period

of its being employed.

Again, in a small jar of about one pint capacity, having a

single plant of Vallisneria spiralis growing healthily in it, and

with a few small water-snails as scavengers, I succeeded during

the spring of 1853 in hatching and rearing a young trout.

The egg was obtained from Mr. S. Gurney, jun., and had been

removed from his preserves in the river Wandle; the shell

ruptured the day after my receiving it, and it was maintained

in a perfectly healthy state during the whole of the period

required for the development of the respiratory organs, and

the complete though gradual absorption of the ovum. This

development was perfected in fifteen days from the bursting of

the shell, till the period that the fish could sustain itself con-

tinuously in the water and was able to swim strongly. Having

arrived at this stage of maturity, the vessel became far too small

for the free use of its active powers of locomotion, and it was

therefore transferred to a small tank containing several minnows,

when to my great annoyance it was immediately seized and de-

voured.

As another instance of the voracity of the finny tribe and

their destruction of each other, I may mention here that I

had on a previous occasion placed several small trout fry over-

night in an aquarium containing some gold-fish, but they must

have been rapidly preyed upon, as no trace could be seen of them

the following morning. These facts will demonstrate clearly the

havoc which must take place in the rivers and streams among

the young fry of various fish under ordinary circumstances, when

they are proved to be devoured with such extraordinary rapidity

even by such species as the gold-fish or carp tribe and the

minnow.

Memorandum 3.

Care should be taken in the aquarium for fresh water to ex-

clude the ordinary Polype or Hydra fusca, particularly where

certain species of fish are to be preserved, as with the mimnow

(Leuciscus Phoxinus), for these creatures, insignificant as they

may appear, after a short time cause their death, and that under

most extraordinary circumstances, as the following observations

* Quarterly Journal of the Chem. Soe. for April 1850, vol. iui. p. 52.

368 Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria.

will tend to show :—In a small aquarium that had had gold-fish

kept in it for a length of time, but which had been removed into

one of larger dimensions and more fully exposed to the light, an

enormous number of the Hydra fusca were observed to have

made their appearance very soon after this removal. Wishing

therefore to ascertain if the appearance and rapid increase of

these polypes had been prevented by the gold-fish, the following

experiments were made :—Fifteen individuals of the Hydra fusca

were placed in the aquarium containing the gold-fish, but they

very soon disappeared, having I presume been devoured by the

fish ; a second fifteen were then introduced, but with the same

result. At the same time as this experiment was made, fifteen

hydras were placed in a tank containing four minnows (Leuciscus

Phoxinus) and a pair of small eels, but as the minnows did not

appear to touch them, the same number of polypes being

counted over several times during a period of three weeks, they

were soon forgotten altogether. After a space of about seven

mouths had elapsed from this time, the minnows were observed

to assume a most extraordinary aspect, the head appeared very

much swollen, and the eyes of all of them looked as though

starting out of their heads, being forced upwards and in an out-

ward direction and much enlarged ; by degrees the gills of some

of them became streaked with bloody markings, and this gra-

dually extended to the base of the pectoral fins. The whole ap-

pearance was most distressing to contemplate, particularly as it

was impossible, from ignorance of the cause, to adopt any reme-

dial measures. Judging from their appearance my impression

was that they had been poisoned, and assuming that it must

have arisen from something putrescent which they might have

raked out of the materials at the bottom of the aquarium, the

whole of the water was drawn off clear by a siphon, the gravel

and sand thoroughly washed, and everything replaced in the tank

with the fish ; no improvement however appeared to follow, the

fish got worse and ultimately died. This was in June 1853.

Before this extraordinary change came on, the fish had been ob-

served to cluster together in one particular secluded spot, and

rarely came out as they had been accustomed to do, and when

they didventure forth they rubbed or jerked themselves with much

force against the gravel and rock-work, as though something was

irritating the skin ; nothing however was visible. I had had these

fish for about eighteen months in the same aquarium. As the

water was perfectly bright and clear, and free from all odour or

unpleasant taste, I procured six fresh mimnows and placed them

in the tank; for about ten days they appeared to be pretty

healthy ; they did not however swim about freely, but herded

together in one corner of the aquarium, and then the same ex-

Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria. 3C9

traordinary change gradually came on which had been observed

in the others, and after lingering for seventeen days they a!l

died. On carefully scrutinizing the different parts of the tank

with a magnifying-glass, my attention was at once arrested by

observing the enormous numbers of the Hydra fusca which were

present, particularly on the parts of the aquarium where the fish

had been accustomed to feed; that is, along the water-line

towards the light, at the base of the plants of Vallisneria spiralis,

about half an inch above the gravel, and on the whole of tle

rock-work around the space where the minnows delighted to

hide; here they might have been seen stretching out from the

sides, hanging down from the top, in fact in every possible

direction—here then was a solution of all the evil. It now be-

came a question how these pests were to be eradicated, and after

canvassing in my mind a variety of suggestions, I determined to

endeavour to remove them individually, and by this means they

were speedily got rid of; from fifty to a hundred being taken

out daily. The method by which this operation was effected was

as follows :—A long glass capillary tube open at both ends was

introduced into the water, having the finger kept tightly over the

upper orifice, while, with the edge of the lower opening, the

polype was detached from its hold ; the moment this was effected

and the hydra began slowly to fall through the water, the finger

was remoyed, and the water with the polype was thus rapidly

driven into the tube by the pressure of the external column of

water ; on replacing the finger the contained water and polype

were removed. By persevering in this course they were caught

with the greatest rapidity and dropped into another vessel before

they had time to attach themselves to the interior of the tube,

fallmg through the water like a miniature parachute. When

situated in places where this mode of capture could not be em-

ployed, as on the leaves of the Vallisneria, or on the under sides

of the rock-work, they were pulled off with a jerk by means of a

small pair of forceps. In this manner between four and five

hundred polypes were removed from a small aquarium holding

about six gallons of water. Since this some small carp and aiso

minnows have been placed in the same water, and have continued

now for upwards of sixteen months in perfect health.

It is a curious problem as to the manner in which this de-

struction of life was brought about ; my own impression is that

the hydras seized on the minnows whenever their extended ten-

tacula were touched by the swimming fish,—stinging them, and

causing a great degree of irritation; and that the polypes were

torn from their position by the greater strength of the fish and

carried to their places of retreat, where, by consequence, the

mischief was continually accumulating. A similar removal from

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 24.

370 Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria.

one place to another of an analogous creature, the young of

the Actinia, takes place in sea water, from their attaching them-

selves by their tentacula to some moving denizen, the hold being

released very soon after they are forced from their original

attachment.

Sea Water.

Memorandum 1.

In my previous experiments in this branch of the subject,

commenced in January 1852*, and of which some results were

communicated to the British Association at their meeting last

year at Hull +, I stated that the result of my experiments to

ascertain the kind of sea-weed best fitted for maintaining the

balance with the animal life was, under ordimary circum-

stances, in favour of the Chlorosperms, and that the Rhodo-

sperms submitted to the lke conditions did not answer the

purpose desired and at the same time retain their colour and

beauty, inasmuch as they very soon became coated with a growth

of short green and brown Confervee (Conferva tortuosa?), which

entirely mantled the whole surface of the fronds and destroyed

their characteristic appearance. During these investigations,

however, it occurred to me that it might be possible to obviate

this drawback, and I have, I believe, succeeded, after a series of

experiments, im overcoming this inconvenience, and can now

retain them in all their natural loveliness and render them quite

efficient for all the purposes required, that is, as consumers of

carbonic acid and generators of oxygen.

The ground on which I have reasoned as a basis for these

experiments has been the consideration, that nearly the whole of

these red or pink-coloured sea-weeds are found either in deep

water or under the shade of other Alge, and from the fact that

they were also often known to occur in shallow rock-pools ; it was

hence fair to assume that the pressure of the column of water

could not be an important element in the production of these

coloured growths, and therefore that it must depend upon a

modification of the light. Hence my idea was that the effects

of the depth of the water might be capable of being imitated

by tinting the hght through the interposition of coloured

media, and thus all the results observed in the vegetation, and

much even of the healthy animal life of deep sea water could be,

under this arrangement, assimilated ; and this, I am happy to

state, has proved experimentally to be the case, so that, by very

* Garden Companion, January 1852; and Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.

for October 1852.

+ Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. November 1853.

Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria. 371

simple means and with very little trouble, we shall be enabled

to grow and preserve these elegant and beautiful plants in all

their varied hues, as well as many of the wondrous forms of ani-

mal life usually found associated with them, for any length of

time ; and thus a much enlarged field for observation will be

brought within the limits of our aquarium.

In order to obtain this desideratum, a medium having a blue

or green tint has been had recourse to, and of such a nature as

merely to colour, soften or diffuse the light, without materially

diminishing its quantity. This was at first accomplished by the

employment of a thin film of paimt of the desired shade, of a

thin silk gauze of a blue colour, by layers of tissue paper tinged

blue and green, sometimes oiled to render them more trans-

parent, at others the sheets of paper being superposed until the

desired effect was produced, or by coloured varnishes, blue, and

blue and yellow, and mixed to the tint required. These mate-

rials should be applied to the surface of the glass, or interposed

between the source of light and the water, in such a way, that

the whole of the light which directly illuminates the aquarium

may be tinted of the proper colour. In proportion to the quan-

tity of light at command and the varying aspect to the sun’s

rays, so must the transparency of the colouring medium be ad-

justed. In my own case I have been obliged partially to employ

coloured glass, as the other methods were found to impede too

much of the direct light ; but it must be borne in mind that this

is in the midst of a crowded city, in a smoky atmosphere, and

surrounded by tall houses. To such an extent has this plan

succeeded, that several small attached pieces of delicate red sea-

weed which I had received in October 1852, and had become

thickly mantled with the brown and green confervoid growth

already alluded to, and which had not exhibited the least signs

of vitality, on being placed in a small glass jar arranged with

tinted and oiled tissue paper, soon lost the whole of this parasitic

growth, from its gradually decaying and being then consumed

by the mollusks, the fronds assuming their deep crimson hue,

becoming perfectly clear, and even after so long a period throw-

ing out numerous young shoots or leaflets; and on one of these

pieces several beautiful specimens of the Coryne sessilis made

their appearance, together with groups of Lepralia and corallines.

Memorandum 2.

Another very interestmg experiment that I have had _pro-

gressing very successfully for some time past, is the preserving

sea water in a perfectly transparent and healthy state without

the use of vegetation of any kind, or, in some cases, even of a

scavengering mollusk. The adoption of these experiments was

24°

372 Mr. R. Warimgton’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria.

in a great degree forced upon me from circumstances which have

been already published. In the paper read before the Meeting

of the British Association at Hull, I stated that in consequence of

the ravenous propensities of the crabs and the varieties of rock-

fish, I had been obliged to establish several small imitation rock-

pools, so as to separate these various depredators from each

other ; and as some of these, the blennies, also attacked the

common periwinkle and other mollusks which were employed as

scavengers, the plant or vegetation consequently became of little

use, and was therefore omitted altogether from the arrangement.

It may be asked then, how can the sea water under such cireum-

stances be possibly kept in a healthy state? Why, thus: by ex-

posing a very extended surface of it to the action of the air, and

at the same time hmiting its depth. The means that I have

been adopting for upwards of twelve months consist in the

employment of shallow circular stone-ware pans of about eighteen

inches internal diameter by five inches deep ; these are filled for

about two inches with water, the bottom is supplied with sand and

shingle, and numerous fragments of rock-work are arranged at

the sides, some close below the surface of the water, others

rising in gentle slopes above, and others again grouped to form

cavities of retreat, so as to accord with the habits of the crabs,

blennies, &c. placed in them. The whole is covered with a sheet

of common window glass, raised about one-fourth of an inch

from the edges of the pan by means of slips of wood, so as to

allow a free current of air over the surface of the water, and at

the same time impede the evaporation and prevent the greater

part of the dust and soot from settling on it. By this arrange-

ment a very extended surface of water is submitted to the oxi-

dizing influence of the air, and the fish and crabs by their con-

tinual movements cause sufficient motion in the fluid to expose

a fresh surface frequently to its action and thus keep up its

aération. But it must be borne in mind, that the oxygenation

of the water thus effected is a very delicate equilibrium, and the

maintenance of a healthy aération is liable to be disturbed by

very slight interfering causes ; nor do I conceive that this method

would be applicable except to such marine denizens as are either

of such low organization as to require but little aération of the

water, or to such as the crab tribe, the blennies, cotties, gobies,

and those creatures which delight in very shallow water, or

which have the power of climbing out of their liquid element.

The varieties I have myself kept in perfect health for the period

mentioned, are crabs, blennies, gobies, cotties, and varieties of

Actinia. Cancer Menas has under these circumstances cast its

skin three times during the present year, having increased in its

dimensions most extraordinarily each time.

On Preserving brittle specimens in Botany and Zoology. 373

Memorandum 8.

The form of aquarium which, after upwards of five years’ ex-

perience and observation on the natural habits of the various

animated tenants, I have now adopted, consists in a four-sided

vessel having the back gradually sloping upwards from the bot-

tom at an angle of 45 to 50 degrees, and the consequently ex-

tended top sloping slightly downwards and resting on the upper

part of the back. The bottom, therefore, becomes necessarily

narrow. ‘The front for the purposes of observation, and the top

for the admission of light, are to be of glass; the back, ends,

and bottom being constructed of slate; the whole fixed in a

stout framework.

The advantages of this arrangement are :—

First. That it allows of a most extended view of the whole

interior of the aquarium.

Secondly. That it enables the occupants to resort to water of

any depth they may desire, or even to ascend the sloping back

and emerge from the water.

Thirdly. It admits of a much larger surface of water being

exposed to the action of the light; and

Fourthly. The sloping top allows the water which condenses

on the glass, from the effect of radiation, to trickle off and return

to the aquarium without first resting on the zinc or iron frame-

work.

I need hardly mention that the sloping back is to be covered

with light rock-work extending to a short distance above the

water line.

XXXV.—On a Mode of giving permanent Flexibility to brittle

specimens in Botany and Zoology. By Prof. J.W.Battry, U.S.*

THE excessive fragility, in the dry state, of many plants, and

particularly of those which secrete carbonate of lime, is well

known to botanists. There is no herbarium in existence in

which the specimens of Amphiroa, Jania, Corallina, Halimeda,

Liagora, Chara, &c. are not in a more or less mutilated condition,

which becomes worse every time the plants are examined. In

studying a large collection of the stony Algze I was led to remark

their perfect flexibility while moist, which passed to great brit-

tleness when dry, and it occurred to me that if they could be

kept permanently moist they would remain permanently flexible.

I then remembered that General Totten, of the U.S. Engineers,

had mentioned to me, some years ago, his success in preventing

the cracking and peeling-off of the epidermis of various shells,

by impregnating them with chloride of calcium. I also remem-

* From Silliman’s Journal for July 1854.

374 On Preserving brittle specimens in Botany and Zoology.

bered Boucherie’s experiments with the same substance in giving

flexibility to wood. The principle that a substance which is

flexible when moist, will remain permanently moist, and therefore

permanently flexible, when impregnated with a deliquescent salt,

is so obviously true, that it needed no experiments to convince me

of its applicability to the fragile plants above mentioned, and to

many other specimens in natural history ; but as practical diffi-

culties often occur in the application of correct principles, I have

tested the process by numerous experiments in which chloride

of calcium was employed to give flexibility to various vegetable

and animal products, and the results have fully equalled my ex-

pectations. My specimens of Amphiroa, Jania, Corallina, &c.,

after being impregnated with this salt, and then exposed for

months to the air, can be handled as freely as if just taken from

the water, and they permanently retain nearly the utmost degree

of pliability they are capable of receiving. Species of dry, crisp

and brittle Lichens when treated in the same way became soft,

elastic and flexible, so as to bear very rough handling with per-

fect impunity. Many of the common Algz which shrink much

in drying, and therefore assume a very unnatural appearance, and

besides are apt either to become cracked or torn, or to wrinkle

up the paper to which they adhere, retain after immersion in this

salt nearly their normal degree of distension, and preserve a

much more natural appearance than when dried in the usual way.

Many dried specimens of plants, whose leaves, flowers or fruit

dropped off almost at a touch from specimens in my herbarium,

became permanently pliable when immersed for a short time in

a solution of chloride of calcium, and could then at any time be

handled freely, while their appearance was in no degree injured.

In the animal kingdom, the results obtained in restoring per-

manent flexibility to dry and brittle specimens of Crustaceans,

Insects, Gorgonias, Sponges, &c. were equally satisfactory, and

have convinced me that almost every naturalist will, in his own

department, find many useful applications for this process.

The mode of application which I have employed is to immerse

the dry specimen for some time in a neutral saturated solution

of chloride of calcium (which any one can make for himself by

saturating hydrochloric acid with marble), and then after the spe-

cimen has become sufficiently softened to bend easily, remove it

and let it drain in the open air. In some cases where the speci-

mens do not imbibe the salt readily, it is well to soften them in

warm water before immersion in the salt. A speedy impregna-

tion will then take place, after which the specimens, if plants,

may be subjected to moderate pressure in the usual way, and

restored to the herbarium; while other specimens may be kept

on shelves, or mm any way usually employed for similar objects,

Bibliographical Notices. 375

and all will for any length of time retain sufficient moisture to

prevent brittleness. The salt being neutral, no fear need be

apprehended of its injuring colour or texture, while its antiseptic

properties will aid in the preservation of matters liable to decay.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A Manual of Natural History for the use of Travellers. By

ArtTuHurR Apams, W. B. Barxie, and CHARLES Barron. Lon-

don, 1854. Van Voorst. 12mo.

“Tue design of the following pages,’ say the authors in their pre-

face, ‘is to endeavour to supply what seems to be a blank in the

scientific literature of this country, for, although numerous treatises

exist upon every branch, yet no work has hitherto appeared, com-

prising either succinctly or in detail, a comprehensive outline of

natural history. It may appear presumptuous,” they add, ‘‘on the

part of the authors to attempt to grapple with such an extensive

range of subjects’ —and we regret to say that a careful examination of

the book only shows us how well founded was this fear. There can

be no doubt, in fact, that the authors have entirely miscalculated

their strength, or they never would have attempted so arduous an

undertaking. This is the more to be regretted, as we fear that a

work with the above attractive title, brought out under the auspices

of a publisher so well known for the first-rate character of his publi-

cations, will inevitably to a great extent preoccupy a place in our

scientific literature which might be much more creditably filled.

The authors have fallen into an error in their very first step,—

the general design and scope of the work. Let us first see what are

the objects of travelling, or indeed of any, naturalists, and the condi-

tions to be fulfilled by a ‘ Manual’ intended for their use, and we

may afterwards consider how far their wants are supplied in the work

before us. The study of Natural History may safely be divided into

two branches—the collection and arrangement of species, and the

study of the structure, habits, and general classification of the nume-

rous creatures inhabiting our planet. The same person may un-

doubtedly combine the study of both branches, but they may never-

theless be regarded to a great extent as distinct, and capable of

being carried on independently of each other ; accordingly we find

that works on natural history are generally directed exclusively to

one or other of them. Now the collector of species, whether for sale,

or for his own personal gratification, desires, if possible, to ascertain

the actual specific names of the objects which come in his way, their

comparative rarity and so forth, so that nothing short of a ‘ Species,”

or at all events a ‘‘ Genera,’’ with copious information as to the geo-

graphical distribution of the species, can serve his purpose. The

reader need but reflect on the voluminous works devoted to descrip-

tion of portions only of the organic kingdoms of nature, to be con-

vinced that an attempt to bring together all the species, or even

376 Bibliographical Notices.

genera of animals and plants within the compass of anything short of

a small library, must prove an entire failure. The observer of struc-

ture and habit, on the other hand, requires a guide-book through the

intricacies of his subject, a compendious account of the actual state

of science, a something to tell him what to observe, and to prevent

his falling into the errors to which isolated observers are so liable, but

which the light accumulated by the labours of his predecessors may

to a great extent enable him to avoid. Such a work as this is still

a desideratum in English scientific literature, for the labours of the

present authors have been directed to quite another result. They

have in fact fulfilled neither of the conditions which we have already

seen to be necessary in a ‘ Manual of Natural History,’ —their work

is a bare sketch of a classification carried as far as the natural fami-

lies, dealing no further with the structure of animals and plants than

as it furnishes characters for the foundation of groups ; it may im fact

be defined as an engine for naming natural objects, which carries the

student just half way, and then leaves him to find the remainder of

the road by himself.

This objection would have applied with less force, had the space

at the commencement of each of the larger divisions (of the animal

kingdom at least), now devoted to a series of desultory generalities,

not always perfectly correct, been made use of to furnish the reader

with some general views of the natural history of the creatures under

cousideration ; but as it is, the observer who may witness any isolated

fact in the history of an animal, even should he be able to ascertain

the family to which it belongs from this book, can never hope to find

in it any clue to the series of phenomena with which the fact

observed may stand in connection.

Before proceeding to examine the details of the book, we have to

protest against a piece of pedantry which pervades the whole, and for

which the authors appear to consider themselves deserving of great

credit,—we allude to the practice of giving what are called English

names to the different groups. If indeed good genuine English names

could be invented for every group and species of animals and plants,

we should have nothing more to say upon the subject, but we enter-

tain the very strongest objection to the absurdities generally palmed

off upon us under this title, and in this respect the present work is

not one whit superior to its predecessors. We meet with the same

attempts at Anglicizing by simply altering the termination of words

from a or @ into ans; whilst the necessity for manufacturing names

for so many minor groups has produced an infinity of multi-verbal

combinations, which we should think would tend rather to repel than

to attract a beginner. We cannot imagine a mind so constituted as

to find such names as ‘‘ Long-legged herbivorcus Beetles,” or ‘ Hard-

skinned serricorn Beetles,” more expressive and easy of recollection

than the corresponding scientific terms ‘‘ Eupoda”’ and “Sternoxi ;”

and in some cases the English names are positive misnomers, as for

example the term “ Gill-lunged Batrachians,”’ applied to those sin-

gular members of the class Batrachia in which gills and lungs are

coexistent in the mature state.

Bibliographical Notices. 377

We have devoted so much space to the consideration of the

general characteristics of this work, that we have but little to spare

for particular instances of the authors’ sins. We must however

select a few, if only to show how little dependence can be placed

upon their judgment, even in making use of the materials which lay

ready to their hands. Thus we find amongst the Annulosa, a class

of Epizoa, or Fish-parasites, including Crustacean families, Lerneide,

Caligide and their allies, and a miscellaneous assemblage of Helmin-

thoid forms. Amongst the latter are included the Linguatulide! The

entire group of Radiate animals also is a most extraordinary jumble.

We find the Rotifera placed in this division, between the Acalephee

and the Polyzoa!; these are followed by the Ccelelmintha, these by

the true Polypes, after which we come to the Sterelmintha, or Cestode

and Trematode worms. That such an arrangement as this should

have occurred to any one engaged upon a Manual of Natural History,

will, we should think, excite a little surprise in the reader’s mind.

Amongst the Sterelmintha we find an order of Cystic worms,

without a single hint of the extraordinary discoveries of Van Beneden,

Vogt, Siebold and others, which have now proved the cystic worms

to be merely phases in the development of the Tape-worms. In like

manner the wonderful mode of reproduction prevailing amongst the

Medusze, which has given rise to Steenstrup’s theory of the ‘‘ Alter-

nation of generations,’’ is passed over without a word of notice; but as

if to make up for the absence of information for which the reader

might reasonably look, we are favoured with some statements

concerning the Acalephz, which certainly have the merit of novelty

to recommend them. Thus we learn for the first time, and we must

confess not without surprise, that Cydippe is “often seen ... making its

way slowly by the regular contraction and expansion of its umbrella-

like body.” In Beroé we are told, “ the organs of progression are in

the form of long filaments, which enable their possessors to roll along

through the water in a very rapid manner ;” and Mr. Huxley will be

astonished to learn, that ‘‘ those curious double gelatinous animals,

the Sal/pe,” are placed ‘in the Diphydous order.” These state-

ments all occur within the compass of a single page (page 336)! We

do not pretend to say that this is an average sample of the work, but

there are certainly few pages of the Zoological portion in which some

errors are not to be met with.

Of the Botanical portion we need say but little, the authors them-

selves admitting that they have employed ‘‘a slight modification of

the scheme offered by the learned author of the ‘ Vegetable King-

dom.’ The only modification that we can perceive is, that they have

reversed the learned Doctor’s arrangement, and raised his “Alliances ”’

to the rank of ‘‘Orders.”” The characters of the families (Orders,

Lindl.) appear to be copied almost verbatim, except the omission here

and there of characters which we must confess seem not unfrequently

to be of some importance.

It is not so easy to ascertain the source from which the system of

Mineralogy is derived, but as it is undoubtedly the most useless part

of the book, it is just possible that it may be the most original. We

378 Bibliographical Notices.

would ask any mineralogist how he would like to have no better

guide in the determination of a mineral than such a character as the

following :—

IV. ORDER Mo.uispeExIDEs.

Minerals containing metals of the lead series, in various states of combi-

nation ; solid.

1. Famity.—Molibdides.—Minerals containimg lead, either native or in

combination.—Occurs 1, native, monometric, H. 1°5, sp. gr. 11°38]; very

rarely ; 2, as Sulphuret or “ Galena,” monometric, H. 2°5, sp. gr. 7°5, colour

and streak lead-gray, easily fused, frangible in beds and veins in crystalline

and uncrystalline rocks; 3, as Oxide or “‘ Minium,” pulverulent, in minute

rhombic prisms; sp. gr. 4°6, in ves of galena and calamine ; 4, as Car-

bonate or “ Cerusite,” in right rhombic prisms, H. 3-3-5, sp. gr. 6°4, lustre

adamantine, colour white or gray, very brittle, m many lead mines; 5, as

Phosphate or “ Pyromorphite,” in hexagonal prisms, H. 3°5-4, sp. gr. 7 ;

colour green, yellow, or brown; lustre resinous, brittle, in veins with other

lead ores ; 6, also less frequently combined with selenium, tellurium, anti-

mony, arsenic, vanadic, chromic, molybdic, and tungstic acids.—Metallic

lead fuses at 612° F., its soluble salts give a black precipitate with hydro-

sulphuric acid.—Symb. Pb.

This is followed by 2. Famrty.—Baryides!, but we need go no

further.

* In conclusion, there is one point to which we must advert, although

in so doing we shall perhaps be running some risk of placing ourselves

in the same category with the famous Shandean critic, who carried

his rule and compasses in his pocket, and determined the merits of a

book by the squareness of its corners,—we allude to its mechanical

execution. We have always entertained an opinion that the great

object of a “ Manual” should be to furnish its readers with the

greatest possible amount of imformation in the smallest possible

amount of space, but the present work appears to have been got up

on a directly opposite principle,—it is printed in a positively large

type, with spaces between the lines, and the characters of the families

are considerably indented, so that in most cases at least a tenth part

of the page is actually lost. Hada type of moderate size been em-

ployed and the present absurd arrangement of the pages avoided,

there is no doubt that at least half as much more information might

have been got into the same space.

Wehave completed a most thankless task, for few things can be more

distasteful to us than to speak unfavourably of the efforts of others,

especially when, as in the present case, they appear to have devoted

considerable labour to a mistaken attempt to aid in the diffusion of

knowledge. But this book unfortunately by no means satisfies the ex-

pectations called up by its title, and there can be no doubt that, as far

as it is concerned, the author of the next ‘ Manual of Natural History’

may justly echo the authors’ own lamentation, that “no work has

yet appeared, comprising either succinctly or in detail, a compre-

hensive outline of natural history.”

Zoological Society. 379

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

On THE ANATOMY AND DEVELOPMENT oF ECHINOCOCCUS

VETERINORUM. By Tuomas Hux .ey, F.R.S.

[With a Plate. ]

On the 25th of November, 1852, a fine female Zebra, whilst at play

within its paddock, accidentally broke its neck. The animal had

always appeared to be quite healthy, and it was in perfectly good

condition—but, upon examination, its liver was found to be one mass

of cysts, varying in size from a child’s head downwards. The liver

was taken out of the body on the day succeeding the animal’s death*

—and on the 27th I proceeded to examine the contents of one of the

largest cysts (with a portion of its wall) and one of the smaller cysts.

It was at once obvious that the cysts contamed the Hehinococeus

veterinorum ; and I may here mention that the Hehinococei were in

full life, and remained so for three days, until, in fact, the fluid in

which they were contained had become slightly offensive.

It will conduce to clearness perhaps, if I state in successive order

I. What I saw myself. TI. The theory of the formation of the

Echinococcus-cysts, and of their relation to other forms of Entozoa,

which I have to offer. III. What has been done hitherto.

I. The cysts are nearly spherical vesicles having a very elastic

proper wall; so elastic, in fact, as to exercise a continual tension

upon the contained fluid, which, if the cyst be pierced, spurts out in

a jet, for some time.

The outermost layer of the cyst is an adventitious membrane,

formed by the infested animal around the Echinococcus-cyst, as it

would be developed round any other foreign body ; with this I have

nothing to do. Within this, and in nowise adherent to it, follows

the proper wall of the Hehinococcus-cyst, which must be carefully

distinguished into two portions. The outer is thick, yellowish and

constituted by a great number of delicate, structureless lammee com-

posed of a substance closely resembling chitine. It is to this laminated

membrane that the elasticity of the cysts is due—and it must be

regarded as precisely analogous to those structureless cysts which

surround the pupa forms of Distomata imbedded in the body of

snails, or to those similarly structureless cysts which enclose the

encysted Tetrarhynchi, and which Van Beneden saw in course of

formation by a process of exudation, around the Scolex form of those

worms. The innermost layer of this, which, for distinction’s sake, I

will call the Hetocyst, is whiter and softer than the others, and appears

to be in course of formation.

The imner portion of the wall of the Lchinococcus-cyst is closely

* I beg here to express my obligations to the Secretary of the Zoological

Society, without whose kind recollection of a wish to examine fresh Entozoa,

which I had expressed, I should not have had the opportunity of making the ob-

servations contained in the present paper.

380 Zoological Society.

adherent to the last-described layer of the ectocyst, but may, with

great care, be separated from it, when it is at once evident that

there is no organic connexion between the two; this layer may be

very conveniently termed the endocyst—it is the only active living

part of the whole wall of the cyst, and represents the proper body-

wall of the animal. It is very pale and delicate, and not more than

Soooth of an inch thick. It is composed of very delicate cells =555-

sdsath of an inch in diameter, without obvious nuclei, but often con-

taining clear, strongly refracting corpuscles, generally a single one

only, nacell. These corpuscles appear to be solid, but by the action

of dilute acetic acid, the interior generally clears up very rapidly, and

a hollow vesicle is left of the same size as the original corpuscle. No

gas is developed during this process, and sometimes the corpuscles

are not acted upon at all by the acid, appearing then to be of a fatty

nature. A strong solution of caustic ammonia produces a concen-

trically laminated or fissured appearance in them. Under pressure,

and with commencing putrefaction, a number of them sometimes flow

together into an irregular or rounded mass.

The inner surface of the endocyst is sometimes irregularly papil-

lated like a glandular epithelium in consequence of the prominence

of separate cells, or its surface presents an even contour, from the

presence of a structureless membrane, which varies in thickness, and

seems to represent the inner portion of the blastema, elsewhere

slightly granular, in which the cells are imbedded.

Solitary hooks are scattered over the inner surface of the endocyst.

I thought at first that they had fallen from the Echinococci ; but it

is with some difficulty that, even by the aid of pressure, the hooks

can be so detached from them; and furthermore the hooks in question

had generally the appearance of those forms found in the younger Lehi-

nococci, from which there is still greater difficulty in detaching them.

I conclude then that these hooks are developed where they are found,

and that they represent a sort of attempt to develope an Echinococcus

which has gone no further. Within the substance of the endocyst

one may see here and there traces of clear delicate vessels, such as

those which will be described in the secondary cysts ; but probably

in consequence of the granular nature of the membrane, they are

rarely visible.

In describing the development of the Echinococci, it will be neces-

sary to return to this endocyst—at present I pass to the contents of

the cyst. This is a clear, colourless, serous liquid, in which two

kinds of bodies are found floating, a. Hehinococer, and b. secondary

cysts.

hi Echinococci. 'To avoid circumlocution, I restrict this term in

the present place to what are commonly called the Eehinococcus-

heads.

The Echinococci are minute, oval bodies, varying, according to the

state of contraction in which they are found, from ,1,-,),th of an

inch in their long diameter.

When fully extended, the Hehinococci are divided by a constriction

into (wo portions ; an anterior somewhat conical part, and a posterior

Zoological Society. 381

oval portion, notched at the extremity: attached to the posterior sec-

tion, and, as it were, sunk in the notch, there is a small appendage

of variable form, which usually appears to be clear and somewhat oval,

or pyriform, with an irregular ragged extremity.

The body of the Echinococcus consists of a very clear transparent

substance, slightly granular or dotted internally, and limited exter-

nally by a well-marked structureless layer. Forming a circle round

the conical anterior extremity there are from twenty to thirty strong

hooks, which sometimes appeared to be in a single, sometimes in a

double row. In the latter case the hooks of the upper row alternated

with those of the lower. A delicate longitudinal striation, as if pro-

duced by muscular fibres, extends from the circlet of hooks through

the anterior portion, becoming spread out and lost in the posterior.

The hooks were about =1,th of an inch in diameter. Their outer

half was formed by a strong, curved, conical claw, the inner half

by a somewhat crooked process with a blunt end. From the posterior

surface of the junction of these two portions a strong rounded spur

passed backwards and gave the hook additional firmness in its place.

The hook contained a cavity, a process of which passed into each of

its portions. Altogether it was not unlike the thickened liber-cell of

a plant.

Behind the circlet of hooks, the shape of a transverse section of the

body is quadrilateral, and at each of the four corners a large rounded

disc with a more or less flat surface is to be seen,—the sucker. In

structure, when unaltered, the suckers appear to be homogeneous,

with granules and two or three of the peculiar corpuscles to be de-

scribed immediately, imbedded in their substance. Under the action

of acetic acid, however, a radiated fibrillation frequently became

visible.

Scattered through the substance of the Hehinococcus, and giving

it a very peculiar dotted appearance under a low power, a number of

oval, strongly refracting corpuscles may be observed. They are very

uniform in size, and have a long diameter of about 72th of an

inch. They are what have been called the calcareous corpuscles of

the Echinococcus ;—inasmuch as in the Cysticerci and other cystic

worms they have been observed to be converted into carbonate of

lime; but I believe that this is entirely a result of that peculiar de-

generation to which the cystic Entozoa are so liable, and that, in the

young and normal adult state, these peculiar corpuscles (which are

found in all the Cestoidea and Cystica) are never calcareous, but are

composed of an albuminous substance.

The mistake has arisen, I think, from two causes. In the first

place, because in old cystic worms these corpuscles are frequently con-

verted into a calcareous substance, although they retain their transpa-

rency and strongly refracting powers; and secondly, because when acid

is added to a number of Echinococci, gas is very commonly developed

from calcareous substances contained either in them or in the fluid in

which they swim ; at the same time the action of the acid rapidly

causes the corpuscles to become clear vesicles, so that nothing seems

more natural than to connect the one circumstance with the cther.

582 Zoological Society.

Having paid great attention to the process, however, I can

decidedly affirm—

1. That acetic acid dissolves out the contents of the corpuscles in

young and fresh Eehinococci, without the least evolution of gas from

them ; and that the same assertion holds good of the corresponding

corpuscles contained in the spirit specimens of Tenia and Bothrio-

cephalus which I have examined.

2. That caustic ammonia produces little cavities and sometimes a

concentric lamination in these bodies.

And, 3rdly, that in a spirit specimen of an Echinococcus from the

Panther (which Dr. Hyde Salter kindly lent me), the corpuscles ap-

peared vesicular without the action of any reagent.

It may be said then, that the peculiar strongly refracting cor-

puscles of the cestoid and cystic Entozoa usually contain an albumi-

nous substance, and sometimes a fatty matter, but that this is very

liable to become replaced by a calcareous substance.

Homologically, I think they are identical with the peculiar, elon-

gated, strongly refracting, solid bodies, contained in the skin of both

the Dendrocele and Rhabdocele Turbellaria, which in some marine

Planaria-larvee, according to Prof. Johannes Miller, are developed

into true thread cells, similar to those of the hydroid Polypes. The

thread cell of the latter is equally developed as a secondary deposit

within a vesicle (nucleus?) contained in the cells of the body; the

only difference would be, that whereas in the Polype the succeeding

internal deposit takes place in the form of a spiral thread, in the

cestoid or cystic Entozoon it takes place as a succession of simple

layers, until the vesicle is full.

Aware of the discoveries that have been lately made by Siebold,

Van Beneden and Guido Wagner, as to the extent to which the water

vascular system is developed in the Cestoid Entozoa; and unac-

quainted with what had been observed by Dr. Lebert* (vide infra),

I particularly endeavoured to detect, in the quite fresh Hehinococei,

some evidence of its existence, and I was so far successful, that I

could very readily observe in several specimens (examined on the

first day) a number of the peculiar flickering cilia so characteristic of

this system of vessels wherever it exists. In spite of all my endea-

vours, however, I could trace nothing of the vessels themselves, in

which, by analogy, one has every reason to believe the cilia are con-

tained+. In one Echinococcus I observed six of these long flicker-

ing cilia; they were so distinct as to be perfectly measurable,

their length being about ~/,,th of aninch. They were excessively

delicate, but broader at the fixed than at the free end, and they com-

pletely resembled the corresponding organs in the RotiferaT,

Naiade, ce.

* Prof. Virchow, and the colleagues before whom he laid his observations upon

the occurrence of cilia in the pedicle of Echinococcus (vide infra), appear equally

to have overlooked Dr. Lebert’s excellent paper, althongh it is contained in Miil-

ler’s Archiv for 1843.

+ Inthe Planaria torva I have similarly observed the cilia but not the vessels.

t+ See the essay by the author on “ Lacinularia socialis, &c. &c.” in the Quarterly

Journal of Microscopical Science, No. 1, 1852.

Zoological Society. 383

Professor Owen has stated (article Entozoa, Todd’s Cyclopeedia,

1839) that the Zchinococci (from the Pig) which he examined,

moved “freely by means of superficial vibratile cilia,” p. 118. There

were certainly no such cilia upon the Hcehinococci of the Zebra.

The movements of the Echinococci, so far as I witnessed them,

were confined to slow, undulatory, peristaltic contractions. I found

numbers in every stage of contraction, but I could not observe any

actually performing the process. The head with the hooks is drawn

in first, as one meets with many forms in which the suckers only

protrude at the extremity, like four knobs. The suckers then follow

and are turned completely in, so that their proper outer surfaces look

towards one another, the coronet of hooks lying beneath them. In

this state, which has been so often described, the animal has not

more than half its previous length, and takes on a great variety of

forms, oval, rounded, heart-shaped, &c.

b. The secondary cysts.—When the fluid contained within one of

the large Echinococcus-cysts is emptied into a glass vessel, it is at first

turbid with minute white bodies, but these rapidly subside and form a

sediment at the bottom of the vessel. These white bodies vary

in size from -j,th of an inch in diameter downwards to =1,th. They

are the secondary cysts.

Under the micrescope these bodies are seen to be delicate sphe-

roidal sacs, containing Hehinococci. The largest examined had at least

thirty of these in its interior. It consisted of a very transparent

structureless membrane, apparently lined by a delicate granular film,

which was most distinct near the pedicles of the contained Echinococci.

These Hehinococci in fact were not free like those contained in the pri-

mary cyst, which I have previously described, but each was attached

by a delicate cord, more or less resembling the “‘appendage”’ of the free

Echinococcus, to the inner wall of the secondary cyst, and radiated

thence inwards. These Hehinococci resembled in all respects those pre-

viously described, except that [could observe no ciliary motion inthem* ;

they were in all conditions of protraction or retraction, and exhibited

the ordinary movements. None were ever found free in a secondary

cyst, and the members of each cyst, as well as those in different cysts,

were as nearly as may be of the same size and degree of perfection.

The space left between them im the interior of the secondary cysts

was sometimes filled with a clear fluid, and at others more or less

obscured by granules. In none of those observed by me was there

any trace of the peculiar mode of development of the contained Echi-

nococci from the granular contents of the secondary cysts described

by Von Siebold (vide infra).

The membrane of these cysts was traversed by a meshwork of fine

clear delicate vessels, with distinct walls and about Topeh to 1 th

of an inch in diameter. These were not folds, as their lumen could be

* This may well arise from my not having examined them till the 28th.

Lebert appears to have found the observation of the cilia to be favoured by the

interposed membrane of the secondary cyst (vide infra).

384 Zoological Society.

clearly seen at the edge of a cyst. They terminated in a some-

what wide space at the base of the pedicle of each contained Hehzno-

coccus, and in one instance I traced a vessel for some distance into

this pedicle. There were no cilia nor granules contained in these ves-

sels, but they precisely resemble those canals of which traces were

seen in the Endocyst, and their development will, I think, show that

they are identical with them.

I may anticipate so far as to say that I believe that these vessels

represent the water vascular system of the parent-cyst.

When such a sac as this is burst the Hchinococct become everted,

and the secondary cyst turns itself inside out, so that the Hehinococct

appear to be seated like Polypes upon a central stem. This curious

peculiarity has led to much misconception as to the mode of their

attachment within the cyst. Von Siebold, however, pointed out the

true nature of this process as far back as 1837* (vide infra).

The smallest free secondary cysts varied in size, as I have said,

down to ;1,th of an inch, when they contained only four Eehinococet.

These, however, were quite as large as those in the largest secondary

cysts.

"The structure of the middle-sized and small vesicles was in most

respects the same as that of the large ones, but there was this differ-

ence, that they possessed, attached to their outer surface, by pedicles,

a variable number of oval bodies of the same average size as the

Echinococci or less, but presenting a yellow wrinkled appearance,

containing very few corpuscles, often none, and either exhibiting no

trace of the circlet of hooks, or offermg only a few, dark irregular

and withered-looking ones. It was impossible to confound these

external bodies with accidentally everted internal heads, the appear-

ance of the two being markedly different.

I cannot help thinking that these withered Hchinococci—for that,

as will be seen presently, is what they really are—are what Mr. Eras-

mus Wilson has figured as developing forms (Joe. cit.).

Development.—We have found free Echinococci and free secondary

cysts contained in the fluid of the primary cyst: how do they come

there? To answer this question we must return to the endocyst. I

found adherent to, and growing from it, a. fixed Hehinococci, and

b. fixed secondary cysts.

a. Fixed Echinocoeci.—These, in various stages of development,

are scattered all over the inner surface of the endocyst, as in the

diagrams E. and F. Plate XI.

Elongated elevations of the endocyst are first seen: within these

the circlet of hooks and then the corpuscles make their appearance :

the elevation becomes a papilla, and the papilla, gradually constricting

itself at the base, becomes the oval Echinococcus, attached by a

narrow pedicle. In this state the slightest touch is sufficient to

separate the pedicle from the endocyst, and then the Hchinococcus is

* The Echinococci are figured in this everted state by Chemnitz (quoted by

Siebold, art. Parasiten, Wagner's Encyclopedia, &c.), by Erasmus Wilson (Medico-

Chir. Transactions, 1845), and by Busk (Microscopical Transactions, 1846).

Zoological Society. 385

set free. The pedicle contracts upon itself so as to have a rounded

form, but it very often betrays its previous adherence by the ragged

fragments of the endocyst, which it carries with it.

Whether this is properly a normal process in the Echinococcus it

is difficult to say, but as Dr. Guido Wagner and Van Beneden have

shown, it occurs normally in the Tetrarhynchide, and it exactly re-

sembles that detachment of the “tail”? from the Cercaria, which

takes place in the Distomata.

As little is it known whether the Echinococci undergo any further

development. The suggestion first made by Delle Chiaje, that they

may dilate into cysts and develope young Echinococci within them-

selves, appears to me highly improbable; and it is an hypothesis

which is not needed to account for the secondary cysts.

6. Fixed Secondary Cysts.—The development of these indeed

takes place in such a manner as to preserve the homological rela-

tions of the Echinococci to the exterior of the parent. The secondary

cysts, in fact, are thus formed : Echinococci are developed not only

from the inner surface of the endocyst, but from its outer surface.

Their growth is probably accompanied by that of the endocyst itself,

which thus becomes raised up from the ectocyst and projects into the

general cavity. Of course any internal Hehinococci which happen to

be attached to this part of the endocyst are raised up with it: they

may be fewer or more according to circumstances. The neck of attach-

ment of the secondary cysts gradually narrows, andat last the secondary

cyst, whose size depends entirely upon the number of Echinococci

developed under the endocyst at one spot, is detached and falls into

the cavity. So long as the secondary cyst remains attached, its

external Echinococci have the normal clear appearance, and are in

full health ; but when once it is separated, they appear rapidly to

wither away and become yellow, losing their hooks and their cor-

puscles, and eventually disappearmg. ‘The original point of attach-

ment of the sac remains as an obtuse cicatrix.

Von Siebold, who has beautifully described the development of the

secondary cysts, has, I think (vide infra), mistaken the one mode of

development of the EHchinococci outside the endocyst for the only

mode. He appears to have seen the endocyst, when he describes

the ‘delicate membrane in which the young Echinococcus-heads are

enclosed,” and to assume merely, that this membrane bursts and sets

the Hehinococcus free upon the inner surface of the parent cyst. Un-

derstanding the mode of development to be as stated above, it is easy

to comprehend how it is, that the Hchinococci are so nearly at the

same stage of development in all the secondary cysts; and that this

stage has no relation to the size of the cysts. The existence of the

external Hehinococct upon the secondary vesicles in this way also,

becomes not only intelligible, but almost necessary.

II. The theory which I have to offer of the nature of the Echino-

coccus, is based upon three facts which are now well established.

Ist. That young Cestoid Worms, which, from some cause or other,

have passed into any other part of the organism of the animal upon

which they are parasitic, than the intestine, become abnormally

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 25

386 Zoological Society.

dilated, at their posterior extremity ; and the anterior end may be

retracted into the sac thus formed, which then invests it like a double

serous sac—a structureless investment may be exereted round this

encysted worm or it may not. Such an altered Cestoid Worm as this

is called a Cysticercus.

2ndly. A dilated Cestoid worm, such as has been just described,

may develope new “ heads” with suckers and hooks all over its outer

surface, never developing any upon its inner surface. Such a Cestoid

worm is the Cenurus cerebralis.

3rdly. The Cestoid worms all possess the power of gemmation (or

it may be called fission) in their unaltered state: and Bendz (Isis,

1844) has distinctly shown that the vesicular extremity of the Cysti-

cercus gemmates. Processes are formed and thrown off, and these

develope appropriate heads and hooks, becoming complete Cysticerci.

Bearing these facts in mind, it is I think very easy to account for

the Hchinococcus-vesicles. The surfaces which produce the Hchino-

cocci must be both external; the Echinococcus-cyst therefore does

not answer to the simple cyst of the Cenurus, or of the protruded

Cysticcrcus ; but to the double cyst of the retracted Cysticercus, the

upper half of whose proper outer surface forms the inner wall of the

cyst in the retracted state (see Diag. D. Pl. XI.).

Suppose the cyst, thus formed, to dilate and to develope a multi-

tude of heads upon this upper half of the outer surface, after the

analogy of Canurus; then the two walls being pressed together into

one, it will appear like a simple cyst covered with heads internally

(Diag. E.).

If, however, at the same time, in complete correspondence with

Cenurus, heads have been developed over the whole outer surface,

we have the primary Echinococcus endocyst (Diag. F.).

Now the cyst may grow out at a particular point, and so form a

bud, which is cast off externally. This takes place in the Echino-

coccus of Oxen. But if it have surrounded itself with a dense cyst,

analogous to that of the encysted Tetrarhynchide, such external

budding cannot take place ; and if the local growth takes place at all, it

will produce a projection internally, and the internal fixed secondary

cysts will be produced. These, narrowing at the neck and detaching

themselves, become the free secondary cysts, as was shown above.

The Echinococcus then is a species of Tenia which has become

dilated and encysted ; which has subsequently produced. heads all

over its external surface, and finally, budding, casts off its vesicular

processes internally, because it has no exit for them externally.

Echinococcus is thus the most complex form of that change which

young Cestoid Worms are liable to undergo if they wander from

their proper nidus ; the combination of hooks with suckers refers it

to the genus Tania, to which Canurus and Cysticercus may by similar

reasoning be shown to belong ; and, therefore, like these two latter

genera, it must, as a genus, be abolished. It is probable however

that Cysticercus, Canurus and Echinococcus are modifications of

distinct species, or groups of species, of the genus Tenia; and are

not mere varieties of one species produced by difference of locality.

They are all three found in the brain, for instance.

Zoological Society. 387

“As to the genus Acephalocystis, there is good reason for believing,

that all genuine specimens of it are Hehinococcus-cysts which have

either not developed heads, or in which they have been overlooked.

The converse of the anatomical evidence as to the identity of

Echinococcus with a modified Tenia, has just been supplied by some

very beautiful researches of Von Siebold’s, published in the Annales

des Sciences for 1852 (or Annals of Natural History, December 1852).

Von Siebold gave to young puppies spoonfuls of Lehinococeus-cysts

in milk. Upon opening them after a short time, he found innume-

rable Tenie attached all over the surface of the intestine. The cysts

had been digested, but the living Echinococci had resisted the action

of the stomach, and, freed from their imprisonment, had begun to

develope joints. Growth had not gone on sufficiently to enable the

learned Professor of Breslau to determine the species. He promises,

however, a continuation of his researches; and it is to be hoped that

we may soon have a complete clearing up of the difficulties with which

helminthologists have so long been puzzled, from his able pen*.

Ill. The literature of Hehinococcus exhibits a singular instance

of the manner in which naturalists delay their own progress, by not

attending to what has been done by their predecessors. Goeze wrote

in 1782, and effectually demonstrated the cestoid relations of the Zchi-

nococci, as may be seen by the following extracts from his beautiful

work (Versuch emer Naturgeschichte der Kingeweidewtirmer) ; nay,

before his time, Pallas had on very good grounds conjectured the

same thing, and yet half a century afterwards we find this all for-

gotten, and speculation rife as to the nature of the Hehinococci.

Goeze thus describes the Hehinococcus-vesicles (op. cit. p. 258

et seq.): —

a The small social granular Bladder tape-worm (Blasen-band-

wurm) : Tenia visceralis socialis granulosa.

‘This is as it were an intermediate form between the great globular

Bladder tape-worm (Cysticereus), and the many-headed worm found

in the brain of staggering Sheep.

**T had already read what Pallas supposes on this subject in the

‘Neue Nordische Beytrage,’ 1. p. 85, when, by a lucky discovery, I

made the whole matter out.

“Upon the Ist of Nov. 1781, I met with an excessively distorted

Sheep’s liver, which was so beset and penetrated by large and small

watery vesicles,—the former as large as hens’-eggs, the latter as

hazel-nuts,—that, externally, one could discern hardly anything of

the substance of the liver.

«The animal itself was almost perfectly healthy. In its total size,

this monstrous liver was about equal in breadth to the two hands ;

and its length was about half an ell: the weight however was four

pounds. I was obliged to divide it into two portions in order to be

able to get it into a large jar (3 inches, glass) with spirit. When I

pricked one of the vesicles with a needle, the water spirted out, as out

of a fountain. I observed, however, that the distended vesicles con-

* A full account of Siebold’s investigations has, in fact, appeared in Siebold

and Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift’ for 1853, under the title, ‘‘ Ueber die Verwandlung

der Echinococcus-brut in Tenien.”—T, H., April 1854.

20*

388 Zoological Society.

tained nothing beyond a mere lymph and possessed no special internal

vesicle. In separating the one portion of the liver I could not avoid

damaging some of the vesicles contained in its interior. Out of these

tolerably hard leathery external vesicles, fell bluish, callous (kallése),

internal vesicles, which were still closed. In their substance indeed

they were somewhat softer than the outer vesicle ; but still far more

cartilaginous than the vesicles of the globular, many-headed bladder-

worms. On opening these there was found internally in different

places a greyish granular matter like the smallest fish roe, which was

united to a very delicate mucous membrane, [which] in water however

immediately disappeared, so that the granules swam about by them-

selves. Ina vesicle as large as a dove’s egg there were thousands,

so small that they could hardly be distinguished by the naked eye.

Under No. 4. Tub. A of my microscope I could already perceive the

organization of these corpuscles. Their form varied greatly ; some-

times heart-shaped with an indent above and a dark line; sometimes

pitcher-shaped, with two round knobs above, at each side one ; some-

times like a horse-shoe with a short dark middle line ; sometimes like

a rounded handle, with an indent above and with two knobs laterally,

and anteriorly rounded off with a dark circlet. When I used No. 1.

Tub. A, I saw clearly that they were true tape-worms. The body flat

with dark dots; anteriorly four suckers, and on the obtusely rounded

proboscis, the double circlet of excessively small hooks ; behind, how-

ever, in each there was a small excavated indentation like an anus. The

others were contracted in quite peculiar forms, and the dark median

streak was the hook circlet. Under the compressor, the four suckers,

the circlet of hooks and the points become much clearer. In these

worms I have observed a circumstance which I have perceived in no

other kind of bladder-worm ; namely that on pressure the delicate

hooks are detached and float about freely.

‘‘ This kind of bladder-worm is distinguished then from that inhabit-

ing the brain of staggering sheep by the following circumstances :—

«1, That the vesicles with the granular matter or with many thou-

sand infinitely small worms, are covered by a strong leathery external

vesicle in which they lie free.

in a clear lymph, and the single worms are only united together by

a delicate mucous membrane, but are not as in those, essentially

adherent to the bladder, and not even to their [own] membrane.

“«3. That each of these granules or worms is several hundred times

smaller than one of the white corpuscles or worms in the central

bladder of the staggering sheep.

“This is then the same, but now explained pheenomenon, which the

acute Pallas has already observed ; but has left without elucidation.

“In the ‘Stralsund Magazine,’ 1. St. p. 81, he has already directed

the attention of observers to these points :

*«* «Whoso will consider the above description of the true bladder-

worm, will not perhaps with M. de Haen deny to worms all partici-

pation in the origin of watery tumours and of Hydatids, at least it

seems to me very probable that the unattached (unangewachsene)

watery bladders seen by many observers in the human body—most

Zoological Society. 389

frequently in abnormal cavities in the liver—are caused by a worm

similar to, if not identical with, our bladder-worm, I say from a worm

probably resembling our bladder-worm ; for we find in the liver and

lungs of Oxen and Sheep another wonderful kind of watery bladder,

which seems to arise from nothing but some kind of animal germ ;

but however is widely different from our bladder-worm, and cannot

have arisen from it.’ ”

Pallas, after describing some of the Hydatids, goes on to say :

“<The water-bladder itself consists of a white, hardish, quite ho-

mogeneous membrane, which becomes thinner towards the caudal

extremity ; wherever it is lacerated it folds back, and may be best

compared with a section (as thin as paper) of a boiled cartilage of a

young animal. Within, this external strong membrane is lined by a

delicate structure or membrane, which is very easily separated from it,

and is beset with a great number of small, white, commonly round, or

oval, corpuscles. The corpuscles consist, as the microscope shows, of

longish globules united together, whose substance appearsto bedotted.”’

Subsequently (p.261) Goeze quotes from the ‘Nordische Beytrage,’

1. St. p. 83, thus:

‘It is probable that the unattached hydatids which are at times

observed in the human body (are), either of the same kind as the proper

bladder-tape worm, or are the same as those singular watery bladders,

which I have observed and described in the liver and lungs of diseased

Calves and Sheep, and which are most certainly also to be ascribed

to a living creature, and are not indistinctly organized (at least if we

consider the inner membrane strewed over with granular globules).

“On reading through Leake’s treatise upon the ‘ Staggers in the

Sheep,’ p. 85, it seems very probable to me that the bladders in the

brain are more similar to those which I have described in the lung

and liver in Sheep and Calves, than to the bladder-worm which Ty-

son and Hartman have described before me (our globular one) ; nay

perhaps, that they even constitute one genus with the former. The

small worm provided with a circlet of hooks and four suckers, in these

vesicles, might be a development of the globules observed by me.

«TI have at present no opportunity of examining these vesicles in

the fresh state. Perhaps on applying a stronger magnifying power

the granules might exhibit more organization.

‘Consequently, Pallas did not at that time know what to make out

of the granules of these vesicles. The peculiar organization of these

he did not himself see, as I have now discovered, described and

figured it. To whom then belongs the first and true discovery of

the nature of the granules in the internal membranes of the singular

Hydatids of the livers and lungs of Calves and Sheep ?

“But I wish that I could throw more light upon and explain the

mode of origin of these vesicles, and upon the ceconomy of the many

thousand single worms socially united in a single bladder. Do they

grow? do they disperse themselves? does each build its own dwell-

ing? or where do they remain? shall our successors learn nothing

on these matters? ”’

Goeze’s figures are very good.

390 Zoological Society.

The commonly received view of the relation between the cysts and

their Echinococci appears to have been first advanced by Delle Chiaje

in his Hlmintografia Umana, p. 30*.

“‘The said worms, oval, narrowed at the two extremities and en-

larged in the middle, are scattered irregularly over the interior of the

vesicle. The extremity of the head is garnished with a crown of hooks

deprived of suckers. In proportion as they enlarge, these little micro-

scopical bodies take on, little by little, a spherical form, the hooks

become detached, and new Hchinococci are produced in such little

bodies, which have transformed themselves into Hydatids. The new

worms are the children (figliuolini) of the primitive Hydatid, which

was a similar microscopic body. They have a proper vitality, different

from that of the vesicle which contains them.”

Miller, ‘Jahresbericht,’ 1836, describes the Echinococcus-cysts

and their contents found in the urine of a young man labouring under

renal disease.

The cysts had a laminated outer coat ; some contained Hehinococct

and some none, but in other respects they were completely alike. The

Echinococci exactly resembled the ordinary figures.

“Tn a few of the free ones, a trace of a membranous cord, looking

as if it had been torn off, appeared at the posterior end of the body ;

as if the worms had at an earlier period been fixed.”

Miiller could not make out whether the Hehinococci were fixed to

the interior of the secondary vesicle or not.

Tschudi, ‘ Die Blasenwiirmer, 1837,’ observed the retrograding

yellow Echinococci, which he assumes to be returning to the vesicular

form. He considers that the “ corpuscles”’ are ova, and that by their

development in the interior of one of these retrograded Echinococct,

the secondary cysts are formed.

Gluge, ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1837,’ describes the

corpuscles of the Hehinococci very carefully and minutely. He was

the first to notice the peculiar structure of the endocyst. He says,

‘<I have constantly seen in it a kind of arborization very similar to the

formation in fibrinous exudations during the first stage of inflamma-

tion. We see these transparent bodies with slightly irregular contours

resembling empty blood-vessels and ramifying like them. I do not

know whether these are true vessels, I merely draw attention to

the fact.”

In the same year (1837) the second edition of Burdach’s ‘Physio-

logie’ appeared. It contains an admirable chapter by Von Siebold,

upon the development of the Entozoa. Burdach’s work is so little

known, and so inaccessible in this country, that I think it worth while

to subjoin the whole of what Von Siebold says upon this subject :—

«In the development of the Hehinococci also, much has remained

obscure. We must in them always distinguish two things; the pa-

rent vesicle, and the proper Hchinococet enclosed within this. The

maternal vesicle is covered internally by an excessively delicate epi-

thelium, in which are contained corpuscles similar, though here

* Compendio di Eimintografia Umana. Napoli 1825. Compilato da Stephano

Delle Chiaje. :

Zoological Society. 391

generally elongated, to those which we have found in the neck of

Cenurus. In the fluid which the maternal vesicle encloses, we meet

with a few Echinococci, which when they have everted their coronet

of hooks and their suckers, allow nothing to be perceived in their in-

terior but a few scattered glassy corpuscles. These Echinococci evi-

dently arise from the inner surface of the parent vesicle. My own

observations hereupon have been made upon FL. hominis, EL. veteri-

norum, and a new species which, since the number of its suckers

varies very much, I will call #. variabdilis. On examining the inner

surface of the parent vesicle we see little vesicles attached here and

there, which contain a finely granular substance ; out of this mass

the Echinococci proceed (hervorkeimen), sometimes only one, some-

times two, six, seven or more. A portion of the granular mass be-

comes, in fact, sharply marked off, forms a small roundish body,

which, however, by one of its ends, still clearly passes into the rest

of the substance ; the rounded body gradually takes on a pea shape,

the constricted portion elongates, and the body, which has now

assumed a more oval form, is connected ouly by a delicate viscid

thread with the mass from which it sprang; we soon now observe in

the interior of the body the circlet of hooks and the glassy corpuscles.

The Eehinococcus-head thus far developed now begins to move—

everting and retracting its suckers and hooks; the whole body bemg

at the same time sometimes elongated, sometimes contracted. The

development of the Echinococci having proceeded to this stage, the

delicate membrane in which they are enclosed bursts. The young

Echinococci do not immediately fall out, for they are all connected

to the inner surface of the membrane, which until now has enclosed

them, by means of a delicate cord or process of the latter, which

penetrates at the posterior extremity of the Echinococcus, through a

pit, into the interior of the body of the Hchinococcus. The pit looks

almost like a sphincter, holding just that cord of the membrane ;

only after an interval do the cords and the bodies of the Echinococet

become separated. The mode of connection of these cords with the

bodies of the Lchinococci, and their separation from them, reminds

one completely of the relation which the bodies and tails of the Cer-

carie have to one another. The membranous covering of the young

Echinococci wrinkles up immediately when it is torn. The Hehino-

cocci become everted, and so form a rounded heap, im the middle of

which the collapsed investment lies hidden, the Hchinococci being

attached to it like the polypes upon a polypidom.

“Such masses of Hehinococci either remain for a long time hang-

ing to the inner surface of the parent vesicle, or they become de-

tached from it before the single Echinococci have separated from the

wrinkled membrane. The granular mass contained in the vesicles is

probably comparable with nothing else than with a yelk mass, which

supplies the heads with the substance necessary for their develop-

ment through those fine cords. For the rest, I will not undertake

to decide whether all those larger and smaller vesicles, which con-

tain Echinococcus-heads and float about free among fully-developed

Echinococcus-heads 1 the cavity of the parent vesicle, are de-

392 Zoological Society.

tached from the wall of the latter, or whether some few of them

do not arise from the free Echinococeus-heads themselves, which

have developed Hehinococeus-germs in their interior, and afterwards

become distended into vesicles by them; I was often surprised, in

fact, to find upon free vesicles containing Echinococcus-heads, hooks

attached, perhaps remnants of the destroyed circlet of hooks. In

such vesicles of E. variabilis, in fact, I believe I could trace re-

mains of the suckers. With greater difficulty can we understand

the mode of origin and propagation of the maternal vesicle of the

Echinococet. Since in Echinococcus hominis we often find smaller

hydatids enclosed within larger ones, we must believe that the ex-

ternal hydatid is the parent in which the others have been sub-

sequently produced. In what manner, however, this enclosure has

taken place, I must leave as much unsolved as the origin of the

parent vesicle itself.”’

The next step was made by Dr. Lebert, in his excellent paper

(unfortunately without figures), ‘“‘ Kinige Bemerkungen iiber Blasen-

wurmer,”’ in Miiller’s Archiv for 1843. From this I make the fol-

lowing extracts :—

“In the most, even freshly examined hydatids, the animals no

longer move. Yet not unfrequently, if many vesicles be examined,

living groups may be met with. The movement of the animal, while

still in the maternal vesicle, consists partly in turning upon its axis,

partly in a wavy contraction, comparable to a peristaltic movement.

In the interior of these yet living and moving animals I have per-

ceived ciliary motion very clearly. It appeared in the whole interior

of the animal, and I could observe it for hours together. At first I

could with difficulty distinguish the single vibrating cilia; yet, partly

after partial evaporation of the fluid in which the animals were con-

tained, partly by modifying the light with a very fine perpendicular

diaphragm, I could succeed in seeing the cilia themselves, which are

slightly curved and somewhat hook-like, and hardly more than

=izmm. in breadth. I have seen the single cilia with especial

distinctness towards the margin of the animal; commonly, however,

they are indistinct, on account of the contemporaneous vibration of

a certain number of cilia, which resemble in their motion a field of

corn agitated by the wind. The observation of this ciliary motion

was perhaps rendered more easy by the circumstance, that I observed

the animals still adherent to the finely granular membrane which

forms the parent vesicle, and which, in all probability, favourably

modified the light.”

‘* As to what concerns the development of the vesicles themselves,

it seems to go on in the following mauner :—upon the inner wall of

a cyst which contains Hchinococcus-cysts, secondary cysts are formed,

which, after they have attained a certain grade of development, be-

come detached from the inner wall of the larger cyst, and fall freely

into their cavities, but still show the remains of their attachment in

a slightly pointed place: on the inner surface of these secondary

vesicles tertiary ones are now formed in the same manner, and so on.

The hydatid sacs then arise by a kind of endogenous formation simi-

Zoological Society. 393

lar to that which Prof. Miller has already so beautifully described

in the development of a peculiar kind of hydatid tumours.

In his Article ‘‘ Parasiten’”? (Wagner’s Handworterbuch d. Phy-

siologie, bd. 2, 1844), Von Siebold, after recapitulating his view of

the development of the Hehinococci contained in Burdach’s Physio-

logie, makes the following highly suggestive remarks :—

*“Clearly as we can trace the development of the young of the

Echinococcus, we understand very little of the mode in which the

pill-box (eingeschachtelt) aggregations are produced. The multipli-

cation of the vesicles certainly does not take place by division, nor by

the formation of buds upon the outer surface of the parent cyst, as

some have supposed. The hypothesis remains, that the young Hehi-

nococet cast off their circlet of hooks, become distended, lose their

suckers, and so change into little Hehinococcus-vesicles, in which

a new brood then becomes developed. I must indeed confess that I

have not directly observed this process. In any case, the young

Echinococcus must be in a fit state to wander; and if it should be

made out that new Echinococcus-vesicles proceed from them in the

interior of the parent vesicles, we might also justly assume that the

young Echinococci, wandering into other organs, or even into other

persons, may thus lay the foundation for new colonies. Whether,

ayain, there exists a special cestoid worm provided with sexual organs,

with which the Echinococcus-vesicles stand in the same relation as

the Cercaria-sacs do with certain Trematoda, time will show. If it

be so, the young Echinococci must change, having become separated

from their pedicle, not into E'chinococcus-vesicles, but by the elonga-

tion of the body into Tenia.”

Finally, in the ‘Verhandlungen der Physikalisch-Medicinischen

Gesellschaft zu Wiirzburg’ for 1850, (to which my attention was

drawn by my friend Mr. Busk,) I find the following notice :—

«Herr Virchow described the ciliary movement which he had observed

in the stem by which the young Lchinococci hominis of Man are

attached to the maternal vesicle,—a new observation for this genus.”’

I have here endeavoured to notice all those Memoirs which, at the

time of their publication, made a definite addition to what was already

known upon the structure of Echinococcus. The literature of the

subject is somewhat voluminous, and hence the necessity of this

limitation, and the consequent absence of any account of the valuable

memoirs of Goodsir, Curling, Busk, and Erasmus Wilson, all of whom

had been anticipated by the continental observers.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Diagrams :—Hypothetical representations of—A. a young Tenia; B. a Cenurus;

C. a Cysticercus; D. the same, encysted; E. a Cysticercus, encysted,

enlarged, and developing many heads (like Cenurus) from the upper

portion of its outer (now inner) surface; F. a similar form, which de-

velopes heads from the lower portion of its outer (now wholly outer)

surface, and so becomes an Echinococcus-cyst.

394. Miscellaneous.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the natural and artificial Fecundation of Mgilops by Triticum.

By M. Gopron.

Tue author referred to the researches of M. Fabre upon Aigilops

triticoides, from which it appears that this grass is produced from

seeds of Aigilops ovata, and that by cultivation it gradually approaches

cultivated wheat. He does not, however, by any means admit the

conclusion deduced from this fact by M. Duval, namely that wheat

has originated from the 4. ovata, and is nothing but a metamor-

phosis of the latter plant.

M. Godron, by examining the circumstances under which the 2.

triticoides is met with, has arrived at the conclusion that this plant

is only an accidental product; it is never seen except on the edges

of wheat-fields or in their neighbourhood ; its habit resembles that

of the varieties of wheat near which it has grown ; it possesses beards

when growing in the neighbourhood of bearded wheat, but these are

rudimentary in places where beardless wheat is cultivated, and it is

less fertile than legitimate species. He considers that 42. triticoides

exhibits all the characters of a hybrid plant, and that itis the product

of the fecundation of 4’. ovata by cultivated wheat.

He has, moreover, confirmed this view by direct experiment ; the

artificial fecundation of 4. ovata by Triticum vulgare has given him

the two varieties of 4. triticoides which are met with in the South

of France. He has also obtained two new hybrid plants,—one by

the fecundation of 4. ovata by Triticum spelta, the other by the

action of the pollen of Triticum durum upon Atgilops triaristata.—

Comptes Rendus, July 17, 1854, p. 145.

THE OUNCES.

The Ounces, or Tortoise-shell Tigers as they have been called,

should form a particular group of Cats, to which the name of Unc1a

may be attached. They are easily characterized by the great length

and thickness of their cylindrical or rather clavate tail, and the

marbling of the colours on the fur. They are confined to Asia.

1. Uncia Irbis. Felis Uncia, Schreber ; F. Pardus, Pallas. Tibet.

2. Uncia macroscelis, Horsf. Sumatra.

3. Uncia macrosceloides, Hodgson. India.

4. Uncia marmoratus. Felis marmorata, Martin ; F. Diardii, Jar-

dine. Penang.

5. Uneia Charltoni. F. Charltoni, Gray ; F. Duvaucellii, Hodg-

son MSS. fide Dr. Cantor. India; Himalaya.—J. E. Gray.

THE AFRICAN SEAL, HELIOPHOCA ATLANTICA.

I have just received a well-preserved skin and the skeleton of this

Seal from Algeria, under the name of Phoca leporina. It certainly

cannot be the Phoca leporina of Lepechin, in Act. Acad. Petrop.

1777, 264. t. 8, 9 = the Phoca Lepechinii, Lesson, from the White

Sea and the rivers flowing imto it, which M. Nilsson considers to be

Miscellaneous. 395

the same as P. barbata; but I think this is doubtful, as Lepechin

described the fur as dirty-white, sometimes with a yellow tinge

without any spots, and the hair as erect, with abundance of under

wool. The African Seal has very short, broad, closely adpressed

hair, while Lepechin expressly states that the hair of P. /eporina is not

appressed, but erect, and is at once known from Phoca barbata by

the large size of the grinders, which are very close together, and the

last one very peculiarly placed across the line of the other teeth.—

J. E. Gray.

Notes on the Development of the Actinie. By M. Haime.

I have verified the separation of the sexes in the detinie. Each

capsule of the ovary contains only a single ovule, but each testicle

contains several hundred thousand spermatozoa. In the species

examined by me (A. equina, L., effeeta, L., sulcata, Penn., peduncu-

lata, Penn., and coriacea, Cuv.), these always had a bilobed head

and a very long filament.

Actinia pedunculata usually has the sexes completely separated

as in the other species, but, in some cases, a few spermatic capsules

occur in the midst of an ovigerous gland and vice versd.

The ovules are sometimes uniform in size, sometimes of different

sizes, which appears to indicate that several successive layings must

take place, and im fact it is not uncommon to find young animals

already furnished with twenty-four or even forty-eight tentacles in the

visceral cavities of females containing at the same time ovules of very

small size (4. equina and pedunculata). The only difference, except

size, between the smaller and larger ovules consists in the smaller

proportionate size of the Purkinjian vesicle in the latter. Two or

three germinal spots are often to be seen. I have observed no ova in

process of segmentation.

The ciliated larva is at first spherical, and no depression or projec-

tion is to be observed on its surface; it soon elongates a little and

presents a conical extremity. The other extremity becomes hollowed

in the centre, forming the rudiment of the mouth. The cavity

formed at this point enlarges by degrees by the removal of the internal

substance, and the visceral chamber is rapidly formed. The integu-

ments already form a distinct layer at the surface of the body, which

contains thread-capsules, globules and vibratile cells almost exactly

similar to those which occur in the adult. In the general cavity of

some species (4. pedunculata for instance) there are also some large

coloured globules, which vibrate and gyrate.

Before any tentacular mammillz make their appearance, narrow

bundles of muscular fibres are formed in the direction of the length of

the body. These are the rudiments of the muscular system, and

correspond with the vertical plates which are to divide the visceral

cavity. Their initial number is normally six in 4. eqguina, and pro-

bably also in all the species of the group; but I found it impossible

to ascertain whether itis the same in 4. pedunculata, or whether it is

only four ; it is certain, however, that it soon rises to eight in this

polype, and that it afterwards becomes a multiple of six.

396 Miscellaneous.

After the formation of these first muscular cords, the form of the

oung larvee, which was hitherto oval, becomes slightly modified ;

the body becomes more contractile, and soon elongates and shortens

itself to a great extent by expanding or contracting in the middle.

From the flattened buccal extremity, and on points corresponding

with the spaces between the first muscular bands, rounded tubercles,

representing the first tentacles, are soon seen to spring.

The initial number of the tentacles is of course in relation with

that of the first vertical muscular bands, or rather of the mesenteroid

plates which are inserted upon these. But these plates are not all

developed at the same time; two of them, opposite to each other,

first make their appearance ; these grow from above downwards and

present at their margin a little knotted band (cordon pelotonné),

before the others begin to appear. If we consider that these two

mesenteroid plates correspond with the two commissures of the

mouth, and that the latter is produced transversely from the com-

mencement, before the formation of any lamellar or appendicular

organ, we shall arrive at this consequence, that the polype actually

presents the character of bilaterality before acquiring the radiate

arrangement, and that the former of these types, whilst combining

with the other, still continues very apparent for a long time. The

examination of the adult Corals shows that it never completely

disappears.

In proportion as the tentacles increase in size and number, trans-

verse muscular fibres begin to surround the body, and these rings, which

at first are very distant, become more and more numerous, especially

towards the extremity opposite to the mouth. This extremity soon

flattens and acquires an adhesive faculty. The young polype then

presents the most essential characters of its parent. Hitherto it has

been swimming freely in the water, turning pretty quickly upon its

axis, and having its pedal extremity in front. It preserves the cilia

with which the surface of its body is covered, even after it is able to

attach itself, and when it possesses three circles of tentacles. At this

period the young of 4. equina present no trace of the marginal

vesicles which are to correspond with these three circles on the cir-

cumference of the disc of the adult animal.

I have stated that the initial number of tentacles in Actinia is six,

like that of the first longitudinal muscular bands. It may happen,

in consequence of accidental abortions, that this number is only five,

or perhaps four, or the fortuitous inequality of the first tentacles may

deceive the observer as to the number of elements in this first circle ;

but the type is normally hexameral. The exception which I have

noticed in 4. pedunculata, apparently only affects the second circle.

I have, in fact, remarked that momentary checks in the development

of the different parts of the second circle were not rare, especially in

A, equina, but it is generally completed, as well as the third, in con-

formity with the laws established by M. Hollard. The fourth

circle, on the contrary, almost always exhibits with much distinctness

the mode of evolution ascertained by M. Milne-Edwards and myself

for the partitions of Corals ; that is to say, the twenty-four elements

of which it is to be composed, do not make their appearance all

Miscellaneous. 397

together, but the twelve which originate between the tentacles

of the first and third rows are all developed before those which are

to come between those of the second and third circles.—Comptes

Rendus, Aug. 28, 1854, p. 437.

RARE IRISH MOLLUSCA.

Cork, 9th Mo. 22nd, 1854.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I have the pleasure of informing you that a few

weeks since I found at Ballycotton, in the east of this county, alive

and in good condition, and imbedded in turf, which reached to low-

water mark, Pholas crispata, dactylus and candida (the last very

abundantly), and to my great pleasure, several specimens of P. papy-

racea, now for the first time obtained in this county, and except one

specimen found near Dungarvan by Dr. Farren, new to Ireland.

Yours truly,

SAMUEL WRIGHT.

TYPICAL COLLECTIONS OF MOLLUSCA.

The British Museum has lately received the following collections

of typical specimens :—

1. The Land Shells of Jamaica, described by the late Professor

Adams and the Hon. Edward Chitty. Presented by the Hon. Edward

Chitty.

vs The Shells and Mollusca described, figured, or mentioned by the

late M. Souleyet in his account of the ‘ Voyage of the Bonite,’ and

in the Monograph of Pteropods, by MM. Rang and Souleyet.

3. The Shells described and mostly figured in M. d’Orbigny’s

‘Voyage to South America.’

4. The Mollusca described and figured by M. d’Orbigny in M.

Ramon de Sagra’s ‘ Natural History of Cuba and the West Indies.’

5. The terrestrial and marine Shells described by M. d’Orbigny

in Webb and Berthelot’s ‘ Natural History of the Canaries.’

On a new species of Suthora from China. By G. R. Gray,

F.L.S., F.Z.S., &c.

SuTHORA WEBBIANA.

Crown of the head and back of the neck sandy red, passing into

the olive tint of the back and upper surface generally ; tail of the

same colour, but of a shade darker than the back ; primaries strongly

edged with bright rufous; throat and breast light buff, washed with

a rosy tint; abdomen inclined to olive; bill light brown, washed

with rosy pink ; legs either yellow or fleshy white.

Hab, China (Shang Hai).

A single specimen, collected by Mr. Webb, was presented by that

gentleman to the British Museum. It is much larger than S. nipa-

lensis and fulvifrons.—Zool. Proc. March 9, 1852.

398 Miscellaneous.

On some Fishes allied to Gymnotus. By ALFrep R. WALLACE.

My object is to call the attention of the Society to some curious

fishes allied to the Electrical Eel, which are abundant in the fresh

waters of South America. They present many modifications of form,

and will probably constitute a distinct family or subfamily. They

may be characterized as fishes of an elongate form, very slender

posteriorly, without dorsal or ventral fins, but with a very long anal

fin. The intestines are situated immediately behind the head, and

occupy a very small portion of the entire length of the fish. The

teeth are very small, or altogether wanting. The air-bladder is in

some species very long, in others almost obsolete ; and the scales are

very minute, ovate, concentrically striate, and often so imbedded in

mucus as to be invisible till scraped off. The gill-opening is gene-

rally very small, and the eyes and nostrils mimute.

There seems to be sufficient variety of form and structure to justify

the establishment of five genera.

1. The true Gymnotus (of which the Gymnotus electricus appears

to be the only well-known species), characterized by the anal fin

reaching the extremity of the tail, which is flattened; by the air-

bladder extending almost the entire length, in a cavity beneath the

vertebrze ; and by having a single row of short acute teeth in each jaw.

2. The genus Carapus, to which five of my species belong. These

have the tail cylindrical and pointed, extending beyond the anal fin ;

a band of minute teeth in each jaw; and a double air-bladder, gene-

rally of very small size. One of my species appears to be identical

with Carapus brachyurus of Bloch.

3. A form, of which I have but one representative, which has a

deep body, a rather large mouth, but xo teeth, and a small round

single air-bladder.

4. Two long-jawed species, which have a very small mouth, no

teeth, and no air-bladder. The larger of these is probably the Gym-

notus rostratus of Schneider.

5. The genus Apteronotus, which differs from all the preceding

in having a small, but perfectly-formed and rayed caudal fin, a rather

large mouth, with the lower jaw shutting within the upper, and the

teeth rather acute and prominent in a row on the sides of the jaws

only. My representative of this genus appears to be quite distinct

from Apteronotus albifrons of Lacépéde.

These fishes were all found near the sources of the Rio Negro and

Orinoco, one of the most central positions in South America. They

are most abundant in the smaller streams, and feed on minute aqua-

tic insects. None of them, except the common Gymnotus, have

any electrical properties. They are all eaten, though, owing to the

number of forked or branched bones in every part of their bodies,

they are not much esteemed.

The situation of the vent in these fishes is very peculiar, the in-

testine passing forwards from the stomach, instead of backwards, as is

usually the case, so that they have the anus situated under the throat;

in one of the long-snouted species it is actually considerably in front

of the eyes, a peculiarity which I believe does not occur in any other

vertebrated animal.

Meteorological Observations. 399

This fish, too, is remarkable for the very singular manner in which

it is said to feed. It is asserted that it lives principally on ants and

white ants, which it obtains by laying its tail out upon land. The

ants, attracted by its mucous covering, crawl thickly upon it, when

the fish dives down and leaves the ants struggling upon the sur-

face of the water, where it is enabled to eat them at its leisure. The

Indians assert that, when fishing at night, they often see this take

place.

To give some idea of the distribution of fishes in the rivers of

South America, I may mention, that of 205 species which I found in

the Rio Negro,—

43 were spinous-finned fishes, principally Percide and Labride ;

54 were Siluride ;

80 were Salmonide ;

24 were other soft-finned fishes, of the families Lsocide, Anguillide

and Cyprinide ; and

4 were Ray fish (cartilaginous fishes).—Zool. Proc. July 12, 1853.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR SEPT. 1854.

Chiswick.—September 1. Veryfine. 2. Slight fog: very fine. 3. Foggy: very

fine. 4. Foggy: slight haze: excessively dry air. 5. Very fine: hazy: fine.

6—10. Very fine. 11. Dense fog: clear: quite cloudless : very fine. 12. Dense

fog: very fine. 13. Cloudy: rain. 14. Cloudy: slight rain: overcast. 15. Very

fine. 16. Overcast. 17. Very fine. 18. Fine: cloudy: rain. 19. Overcast and

windy : slight rain. 20. Cloudy: rain. 21. Clear: quite cloudless: fine: light-

ning in the evening. 22. Very clear: fine. 23. Densely overcast. 24, 25. Very

fine. 26—29. Foggy, with very heavy dews in the mornings: very fine throughout

the days : clear and cold at nights. 30. Dense fog throughout.

Mean temperature of the month ............cscecsesececees Leck 56°93

Mean temperature of Sept. 1853 .....-.2.-:-2+ass-sess-eceseseee 55 *45

Mean temperature of Sept. for the last twenty-eight years... 56 -98

Average amount of rain in Sept. ..............sececeseseeses esses 2°57 inches.

Boston.—Sept. 1—4. Fine. 5. Cloudy. 6. Fine. 7—9. Cloudy. 10—12.

Fine. 13. Cloudy. 14. Rain a.m. 15—17. Cloudy. 18. Fine. 19. Cloudy:

rain A.M. 20. Rain a.m. 21, 22. Fine. 23. Cloudy: rain a.m. 24. Cloudy:

stormy A.M. and p.m. 25—29. Fine. 30. Foggy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Sept. 1. Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m. 2. Clear a.m.:

cloudy p.m. 3. Clear, fine a.M.: clear p.m. 4. Rain a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 5,

Cloudy, fine a.m.: cloudy p.m. 6. Drizzle a.m.: rainp.m. 7. Drizzle a.m.:

cloudy p.m. 8. Cloudy a.m.: clear, fine, aurora P.M. 9. Clear, fine a.m. and p.m.

10. Bright, fine a.m. : clear, fine p.m. 11. Rain a.m. and p.m. 12. Clear, fine a.m. :

cloudy p.m. 13. Clear a.m.: rain p.m. 14. Clear a.m.: showers p.m. 15.

Showers A.M. and p.m. 16. Showers a.M.: cloudy p.m. 17. Bright a.m.:

showers P.M. 18. Showers a.m. and p.m. 19. Bright a.m.: clear p.m. 20.

Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 21. Bright a.m.: clear p.m. 22. Bright a.m.:

cloudy p.m. 23,24. Rain a.M.: clear p.m. 25. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 26.

Showers a.M.: clear p.M. 27. Clear a.M.: cloudy p.m. 28. Clear, fine a.m. :

clear p.m. 29. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 30. Hazy a.M.: clear p.m.

Mean temperature of Sept. for twenty-seven previous years . 52°32

Mean itemperature om this monthic: .cossese2 osce cece o esse csccee ss 55°07

Mean temperatHrevOh SEPte USideccctssccresccsdsce-osesccsccrescs 53 °28

Average quantity of rain in Sept. for fourteen previous years 2°81 inches.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

No. 84. DECEMBER 1854.

XXX VI.—Remarks on Associations of Colour and the Relations of

Colour and Form in Plants. By G. Dicktn, M.D., Professor

of Natural History, Queen’s College, Belfast*.

ReLations in the form, structure, number and _ position of

organs are familiar to every botanist. A priori it might have

been inferred that order prevails in the distribution of colours ;

that there is no mere fortuitous relation, but that all must be

subject to law. This is not only the fact, but there are, besides,

obvious indications of a relation between the colour and form of

organs.

In April and May 1853, the facts to be here recorded were

first observed and demonstrated to scientific friends in Belfast.

Professor M‘Cosh, in a lecture before the Natural History Society

in May 1853, intimated that he had for some time entertained a

belief in the existence of complementary colours in the vegetable

kingdom. The results of my own observations were embodied

in a paper read at the October Meeting of the sume Society in

that year. It would seem, however, that certain associations of

colour have been long known to artists who have cultivated the

special department of flower-painting. Any relation, however,

between form and colour appears to have escaped notice, and

even erroneous ideas have been promulgated respecting this

point. Thus Ruskin, in his ‘ Lamps of Architecture,’ states that

“the natural colour of objects never follows form, but is arranged

on a different system ;” and again, “ colour is simplified where

form is rich, and vice versd.” “In nature,” he further says,

“the boundaries of forms are elegant and precise; those of

colours, though subject to symmetry of rude kind, are yet irre-

* Read to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Nov. 9, 1854,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 26

402 Dr. Dickie on Associations of Colour and Relations

gular—in blotches.”

senting the truth.

Without alluding to differences of opmion which have been

recently published regarding the law of harmonious colours, it

may be sufficient to allude briefly to the views usually enter-

tained by physicists and most generally adopted. White or

compound light consists of three simple colours called primaries,

viz. yellow, red, and blue; combinations of these yield secon-

daries ;— yellow and red give orange, yellow and blue give green,

red and blue give purple. Combmations of secondaries yield ter-

tiary colours,—green and orange give citrine, purple and green

give olive, orange and purple yield russet.

A primary and secondary, together containing all the prima-

ries, are complements to each other; for example, yellow and

purple ; red and green ; blue and orange. The presence of all

the colours either separate or combined (which form white or

compound light) is a physical want of the organ of vision.

The artist recognizes a melody of colours, that is, gradations

of hues and shades, and speaks of harmony when complementary

colours are present. A white line (or black) between two colours

not complementary subdues discord. There is a correspondence

between the depth of any hue and that of its complement ; for

example, red-purple and yellow-green are associated. Every

association of colour in the organic world may be regarded as

an actual embodiment of results, which cannot be otherwise than

in strict harmony with those great principles which have guided

the plans of the Great Author of nature.

It is worthy of notice, that colour is the foundation of one of

the more recent classifications of Algze, that of Professor Harvey.

They are divided by him into red, green, and olive ; among the

red series are comprehended many which present various tints,

of purple for example, and in the olive series not a few are

yellow-green. All this is in strict accordance with the views just

adverted to.

Among the family of the Mosses the red or red-purple teeth

of the peristome are associated with the green or yellow-green

capsule ; the same is true of the different parts of their stems

and leaves.

In flowering plants the cases are so numerous, that only one

example or two need be recorded.

Primula vulgaris.

All these statements are far from repre-

stalk, red-purple.

pS es leaf, yellow-green.

Caladium pictum.

Leaf seene: red or red-purple.

border, green or yellow-green.

of Colour and Form in Plants. 403

Coleus Blumei.

Leaf J centre, red or red-purple.

border, green or yellow-green,

Victoria Regia.

Leaf lower surface, red-purple.

upper surface, yellow-green.

Taxodium sempervirens.

Young shoots, yellow-green,

A year old, ie

Older still, citrine,

In this last instance, as wel] as in many others, advanced

growth seems to be accompanied with greater composition of

colour. In the eurious pitcher-like organs of Sarracenia, Ne-

penthes and Dischidia, we find that red-purple and yellow-green

are associated.

In the flower, similar associations are the rule.

Ranunculus repens.

Corolla, yellow,

Calyx, purple spots.

The same may be observed in many other species of the same

genus.

Mieracium pilosella.

Flower, yellow.

Those of the circumference yariegated with purple.

Anthyllis vulneraria.

Corolla, yellow.

Tip of calyx, purple.

Sazifraga ligulata.

Corolla, white with purple spots,

Anthers, yellow.

Kalmia (species),

Ten spots of purple on the eorolla at points in contact with the

yellow anthers.

Juncus compressus,

Authers and pollen, yellow.

Ovary and stigma, purple.

Perianth edge, russet.

centre, dark green.

Strelitzia Regine.

juncea, &c.

Sepals, orange.

Petals, blue.

4.04: Dr. Dickie on Associations of Colour and Relations

Tn most Orchidez we find constant associations of yellow and

purple.

We need not expect to find in a corolla or any other organ

pure red and pure yellow, or blue and red, zn contact with each

other.

Of the primaries, blue is the least common, and in fact, gene-

rally speaking, may be called very rare; many so-called blues

being blue-purples: transmitted hight shows this. Pure blue

bemg so uncommon in any organism, Professor M‘Cosh sug-

gested to me that this 1s compensated for in the atmosphere, and

I may add, in the ocean too. Yellow is probably the most

general of the primaries, in the flower at least ; the most com-

mon association is therefore yellow and purple. We can now

understand why yellow is the usual colour of the pollen, and

some exceptional cases seem to confirm this; in the Turn-cap

Lily for instance, the decidedly red pollen is associated with the

green filaments of the anthers.

The statistics of colour in different natural orders have not been

fully examined ; it may be remarked, however, that purple and

citrine prevail in the flowers of the Grasses, and russet and dark

green in the Junci. In the Fir-tribe and its allies, secondaries

and tertiaries are common, such as the purple and citrine scales

of young and old cones, the russet and dark green im the stems

and leaves respectively ; at the same time the copious yellow

pollen must not be lost sight of.

In examining this subject, we must keep in view that the

colour of the flower may have its complement in that of other

organs, as stem, leaf, &c. It sometimes happens that one of the

associated colours is not visible to the eye at all times. The

inside of a nearly ripe fig is red-purple, the outside yellow-green ;

the same is true of the pericarp in some species of Peony. In

some Cactacez the yellow corolla is succeeded by a purple fruit.

The newly ripened cone of the Pinus Pinaster is citrine ; when

the scales open, the complementary purple is revealed at the base

of each. In the fruit, fixed relations of colour are probably too

familiar to require illustration. In certain varieties of the Apple,

red and red-purple, green and yellow-green of various hues and

shades are associated. In some varieties of Pear, yellow-green,

ved-purple and citrine occur together.

Direct exposure to light, although usually, and in general

correctly admitted to have a direct relation to imtensity of colour

in organisms, appears not to be necessary in every instance ; the

plant, however, must receive the light at some part or other in

order to produce that depth of colour observed m the coats of

seeds, the interior of fruits, and in the tissues of subterranean

organs.

of Colour and Form in Plants. 405

In conclusion —

1. The primaries, red, yellow, and blue, are generally present in

some part or other of the plant.

2. When a primary occurs in any part of a plant, its comple-

ment will usually be found in some other part (or at some period or

other of the development of the plant, as was suggested to me by

Professor M‘Cosh).

Observations on the same subject in the animal kingdom have

occupied my attention during the past twelve months ; Birds,

Mollusca, and Radiata present associations of colour not less

remarkable than those here recorded.

The relation between colour and form may now be examined,

and the remarks, for the present, have reference to the parts of

the flower.

When the calyx and corolla are equal in size and similar in

form, the flower is regular ; differences in size and form are found

in irregular flowers. For example, the Violet has an irregular

flower, that of the Wallflower is regular ; a Primrose has a regular

flower, a Snapdragon presents an example of irregularity. Such

expressions are equally applicable to monocotyledonous and to

dicotyledonous plants, to polypetalous and gamopetalous corolle.

Law 1. In regular polypetalous and gamopetalous corolle the

colour ts uniformly distributed, whatever be the number

of colours present.

That is to say, the pieces of the corolla being all alike in size

and form, have each an equal proportion of colour. The com-

mon Primrose is an example where one colour only is present.

In the Chinese Primrose the same holds where two colours (one

the complement of the other) are present ; the eye or centre is

yellow, the margin purple. These two colours in this regular

flower are uniformly diffused, that is, each piece has an equal

proportion of yellow and of purple respectively. In Myosotis,

Anagalhs, Erica, Pyrola, Gentiana, &c., we have instances. All

corollifloral Exogens with regular flowers are examples ; the same

is true of certain Thalamiflorz, as Papaveraceze, Cruciferse, &c.

In Iberis coccinea, belonging to Cruciferze, we find unequal size

of petals, but equal distribution of colour, because regularity of

flower is the law in that family.

Calycifloral Exogens with regular flowers are also examples,

as Rosacez, Cactacee, &c.

Law 2. Irregularity of corolla is associated with irregular distri-

bution of colour, whether one or more colours are present.

The odd lobe of the corolla is most varied in form, size, and

in colour.

406 Dr. Dickie on Associations of Colour and Relations

When only one colour is present, it is usually more intense

in the odd lobe.

When there are two colours, one of them is very generally

confined to the odd lobe. Sometimes when only one colour is

present and of uniform intensity im all the pieces, the odd lobe

has spots or streaks of white. This piece of the corolla therefore

in irregular flowers is distinguished from the others not merely

by size, form and position, but also by its colour.

Papilionaceze present examples of this law; a few instances

may suffice.

Cytisus Laburnum.

4 petals yellow.

5th yellow with purple veins.

Lathyrus pratensis.

Much the same as Laburnum.

Trifolium pratense.

Odd lobe distinguished from the others by its darker purple

veins.

Kennedia monophylla.

4 petals purple.

5th yellow eye and purple margin.

Swainsonia purpurea.

4 petals purple.

5th white eye on purple ground.

Even when the odd lobe of a papilionaceous plant is smallest,

—not a common case,—it may be distinguished by its colour ;

for instance, in Brachysema acuminatum the odd lobe is compa-

ratively small, but has yellow eye and purple margin.

Irregular gamopetalous corolle also present examples of this

law.

Ajuga reptans.

4 divisions purple.

Corolla 15ch has yellow spot on inner surface.

Thymus Serpyllum.

Corolla, generally red-purpie.

Two pale spots on odd lobe.

Galeopsis Tetrahit.

Odd lobe has generally two colours, yellow and purple.

Numerous other examples from Labiate might be quoted.

Among Scrophulariaceze we may instance the following :—

of Colour and Form in Plants, 407

Euphrasia officinalis.

Corolla purple, generally.

Odd lobe has yellow spot.

Digitalis purpurea.

Has white on odd lobe.

In some species of Schizanthus and Collinsia we find purple

the prevailing colour; the primary, yellow, appears in the odd

lobe.

In some genera with irregularity of flower often less marked

than in the examples alluded to, it is worthy of notice that the

two divisions on each side of the odd lobe frequently partake of

its characters as regards colour, half of each resembling the odd

piece; Viola, Gloxinia, Achimenes, Rhododendron, &c. are ex-

amples. In some Thalamiflorous Exogens with irregular flower,

as Pelargonium and Tropeolum, we find that the two upper pieces

are usually largest, and present also the greatest variety in depth

of colour. In the Horse-chestnut there is a very decided relation

between the size of the petals and the intensity of the colour.

On each petal there is usually a crimson spot at the junction of

the limb and claw; the size of this spot and its intensity are in

direct relation to the size of each petal; the two upper being

largest, the two lateral smaller, and the odd piece least of all.

It may therefore be stated, that in some Thalamiflorous Exogens

with irregular corolla, owing chiefly to difference in size of the

petals, the largest are most highly coloured.

Law 38. Different forms of corolla in the same inflorescence often

present differences of colour, but all of the same form

agree also in colour.

The Composite are illustrations of this: when there are two

colours, the flowers of the centre have generally one colour of

uniform intensity; those of the circumference agree together

also.

The common Daisy has all the tubular flowers of the eentre

yellow, and all the ligulate flowers of the ray are white, varie-

gated with purple. A yellow centre with purple ray is a com-

mon association in compound flowers, for instance, in species of

Aster, Rudbeckia, &e.

The same general laws prevail in Monocotyledons as in Dico-

tyledons. In the former the calyx and corolla generally resemble

each other in structure and shape, and in colour also; hence an

idea entertained by some that the perianth is single, relative

position having been overlooked. In Dicotyledons we generally

find a greater contrast between calyx and corolla as regards

colour.

408 Mr. C.C. Babington on Linaria sepium.

The law of the contrasts is therefore simpler in Monocotyledons

than in Dicotyledons.

The former may be symbolized by the triangle, 8 and 6 beng

the typical numbers in the flower; the latter by the square or

pentagon, 4 and 8, 5 and 10 being the prevalent numbers.

The simplicity of figure corresponds with simpler contrast of

colour in the one, while greater complexity of colour and of struc-

ture are in direct relation in the other.

In families of Monocotyledons having regular flowers there is

regular distribution of the colours, for instance, in Amarylli-

daceze, Liliaceze, &e.

Orchidaceze are notable examples of the other law, that irre-

gularity of form and of colour are associated. In a large pro-

portion of this family the colours are yellow or yellow-green, and

purple or red-purple ; the latter bemg confined to the part of

the coro'la usually called lip.

Proceeding on the principle, that since plants of all epochs of

the earth’s history were constructed on the same general plan,

so the same associations of colour, and of colour and form, must

have prevailed also, we shall glance finally at a few conclusions

which may be derived from this source.

During the earlier periods when Acrogenous Cryptogamia were

abundant, the secondary and tertiary colours, as russet, purple,

citrine, green, must have prevailed.

During the reign of Gymnosperms, when Cycade and Co-

niferee were numerous, the secondary and tertiary colows must

still have given a sombre aspect to the vegetable world.

From the commencement of the Chalk formation there appears

to have been a very marked and progressive increase of Angio-

spermous Dicotyledons, which form at least three-fourths of

existing vegetation. Among them we find the floral organs with

ereater prominence in size, form and colour ; and such prominence

of the “ nuptial dress” of the plant, to use the quaint expression

of Linneus, is peculiarly a feature of species belonging to natural

families which have attained their maximum in man’s epoch, and

are characteristic of it.

XXXVIT.— On Linaria sepium of Allman.

By Cuarues C. Basinetoy, M.A., F.R.S., &c.*

Ar a meeting of the Royal Irish Academy, held June 6th,

1843, the occurrences at which are reported in the ‘ Proceedings’

of that body, Dr. G. J. Allman described what he supposed to

* Read before the Edimburzh Botanical Society, Nov. 9th, 1854.

Mr. C, C. Babington on Lenaria sepium. 409

be a new species of Linaria, and upon which he conferred the

name of J. sepium.

In the second edition of my ‘Manual of British Botany’

(p. 232), the opinion was stated that the plant is ‘‘ scarcely more

than a variety of L. italica,” and in the third edition of the same

book I ventured to consider it and the L. zéalica of the Manual

as hybrids between L. vulgaris and L. repens.

In consequence probably of the latter remark, I was favoured

by Dr. Allman, in June 1852, with a large packet of living

specimens and roots of the disputed plant. A careful examina-

tion of these, and a comparison of them with livig specimens

of L. repens, led me greatly to doubt the correctness of the

supposition that it was a variety of L. renens; and Dr. Allman

justly states in a letter to me that the “total absence of

L. vulgaris from the neighbourhood where the plant in question

abounds must render hybridization impossible.” In another

letter he remarks, “I only know of one spot in the neighbour-

hood of Bandon where L. vulgaris grows apparently wild, and

there very sparingly. It may possibly have escaped from a

neighbouring garden. This spot is more than a mile in a direct

line from the nearest patch with which I am acquainted of L.

sepium, and three or four miles from other localities where the

L. sepium is abundant.” Also, “in the same hedge with the

apparently wild plants of L. vulgaris just mentioned, and removed

perhaps from these about 100 yards, grows L. repens, and yet

not a trace of L. sepium have I found to grow within a mile of

them.” These remarks show the great improbability, if indeed

I might not say impossibility, of the L. sepium bemg a hybrid.

Two of the roots received from Ireland have grown well and

flowered profusely in the Cambridge Botanical Garden, and have

thus afforded an excellent opportunity for studying the plant.

As I now believe the plant to be a distinct species, I have

drawn up the following character and description of it, and in

doing so have followed the type of the descriptions of the allied

species to be found in the valuable ‘ Monographie des Antir-

rhinées’” of Chavannes.

Iinaria sepium (Allm.) ; radice repente, caulibus erectis glabris, foliis

lineari-lanceolatis acutis sparsis, floribus racemosis, sepalis ovatis

acutis glabris calecare brevioribus, seminibus tuberculato-scabris

trialatis.

L. sepium, Al/man in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. (1843) p. 404.

Caules e rhizomate repente incrassato seepeque tuberculis instructo

prodentes, plurimi, simplices vel ramulosi, leeves, basi lignescentes

(cortice fuscescente), bipedales ; ramuli alternes, erectiusculi. Folia

pollicaria vel sesquipollicaria, lineari-lanceolata, utrinque attenuata,

410 Mr. C.C. Babington on Linaria sepium.

acuta, subtrinervia (nervis lateralibus tenuibus), erectiuscula, glauces-

centes, inferiora seepe subterna ceteraque sparsa. Bracteze lineari-

lanceolate, acutissimze, erectee, inferiores pedicello longiores, supe-

riores pedicello breviores. Racemus strictus, laxiusculus. Calyx

parvus ; segmentis e basi lato attenuatis, acutissimis, glaberrimis,

trinerviis, post anthesin apice paululum reflexis. Corolla minor quam

in L. vulgari; calcar conicum, paululum incurvum, corollam eequans ;

tubus, calcar et labium superius grisei striis pallide purpureis signati ;

labium inferius dilute luteum striis pallide purpureis et parum

distinctis notatum ; palatum villis luteis vestitum, villis pallide pur-

pureis quemque marginem investientibus, valde prominens, bilobum,

lobis aurantiacis ; lobis labii superioris ellipticis, dorso invicem ap-

plicatis sed apicibus incurvis ; lobis labi inferioris lateralibus reflexis

conniventibus, oblique rotundatis intermedio patenti latioribus et

paululum longioribus. Stigma capitatum. Capsula subovata, de-

hiscens superne sex valvulis lanceolatis, calycem subeequans, Semina

subtrialata ; testa nigra, muricata.

Found plentifully near the river at Bandon, in the county of

Cork, flowering from June to September.

L. sepium forms dense masses of strong stems, and presents

a very different appearance from L. repens or L. vulgaris. Its

flowers and seeds are unlike those of either of them; and in

size the flowers are almost exactly intermediate between those

of its allies. The same part of the rhizome does not appear to

flower a second time, but numerous stems spring up at a short

distance from it, which flower im the succeeding year.

In L. vulgaris the middle lobe of the lower lip of the corolla

is relatively much smaller and is strongly reflewed, whilst the

lateral lobes are patent-deflexed.

In L. repens the lobes of the upper lip of the corolla are erect

with incurved points, and all those of the lower lip patent.

It will be seen above that in L. sepium the lobes of the upper

lip are pressed closely back to back; and that the lateral ones

of the lower lip are reflexed, but the mtermediate one is patent.

The colours also are different.

After a careful examination of all the descriptions of Linarie

with which I am acquainted, I have not found any recorded

species to which this plant can be referred. I am therefore

reluctantly compelled to consider it as a new species. It agrees

in many respects with L. linifolia (Chay.), differing chiefly in

the presence of a few three-leaved whorls towards the base of the

stem, the shorter upper bracts, the striped flowers, and the

three-winged seeds.

The seeds of L. sepium are different from those of any species

that I have examined. They are discoidal, and surrounded by

a wing; but have in addition another wing on one of the sides

which is variable in its size and direction, being sometimes nearly

Mr. W.H. Benson on some species of Cyclophorus. 411

at right angles with the disk, and at others laid so closely upon

it as to be with difficulty detected. Rarely the additional wing

is reduced to a reduplication of the wing of the disk through

more or less a distance. The disk is covered on each of its sides

with elevated ridges radiating more or less regularly from the

centre. The whole seed is black.

XXXVIII.—Characters of four Indian species of Cyclophorus,

Montfort, followed by Notes on the Geographical Distribution

of the Genera of the Cyclostomacea in Hindostan. By W. H.

Benson, Esq.

1. Cyclophorus altivagus, nobis.

Testa angustissime umbilicata, fere perforata, globoso-conica, solida,

striata, superne rufa, castaneo picta, subtus versus periomphalum

albida ; spira elevata, turbinata, acutiuscula ; anfractibus 54 con-

vexis, superne costis spiralibus sex munitis, ultimo rotundato, ad

peripheriam vix carinato, basi levigata, umbilico pervio; aper-

tura vix obliqua, subovali-circulari, superne angulata, intus lutes-

cente ; peristomate duplici, imterno continuo, valde porrecto,

acuto, externo expansiusculo, costam fingente, superne anguste

angulatim adscendente, ad anfractum penultimum late emarginato,

margine columellari minime sinuato, supra umbilicum angustum

dilatato-reflexo. Opere.?

Diam. major 31, minor 26, alt. 242 mill. Apert. intus 17 mill. longa,

15 lata.

Hab. in summis montibus Mahabuleshwar Indiz Meridionalis. De-

texit A. E. Benson.

A single decorticate specimen was found by my son, Lieut.

Arthur E. Benson, Tenth Royal Hussars, after the close of the

rains of 1853, on the summit of the range of Ghauts overlooking

the low tract in which Cyclophorus Indicus occurs. It differs

from this species in its more elevated form, indistinct keel, rounded

last whorl, more elongate aperture, porrect inner lip, the absence

of any sinuosity in the plane of the aperture on the columellar

lip, less expanded outer peristome, and by the greater expansion

of the external columellar lip over the umbilicus, which is also

much narrower; and permits no view of the internal whorls.

The outer lip, at its Junction with the last whorl, rises more

suddenly to a point than in C. Jndicus. It is probable that

when in good condition the internal border of the aperture is of

an orange colour. In the specimen before me I can find no

trace of the close-set raised lines between the lire which are

present in all my specimens of C. Indicus from Elephanta and

the Concan, however weathered. In one antiquated specimen

of the latter, with a porrect superstructed inner peristome, this

412 Mr. W.H. Benson on some species of Cyclophorus.

part still preserves the expanded edge, so different from the sharp

lip present in the mountain species.

Cyclophorus pyrotrema, nobis.

Testa umbilicata, turbinato-conica, solida, superne costis spiralibus,

obtusiusculis, confertis, striisque obliquis confertissimis sculpta,

castaneo albidoque fulguratim strigata et marmorata ; spira conica,

elevatiuscula, apice acuto. Anfractibus 5 convexis, ultimo fascia

albida mediana, infra periphzeriam obsolete angulatam fascia lata,

subtus nonnullis aliis castaneis ornata; basi valde convexa circa

umbilicum submediocrem pervium albida; apertura vix obliqua,

irregulariter subcirculari, superne angulata, intus lactea vel czeru-

lescente ; peristomate duplici, breviter ad anfractum penultimum

adnato, interno continuo, expansiusculo 1 igneo, externo reflexiusculo

albido, margine columellari sensim Senne fere verticali, subrevo-

luto, subsinuato. Operculo normali, tenui, pallide fusco, margine

anfractuum elevatiusculo, scabro.

Diam. major 36, minor 30, alt. 26 mill.

34, 28, — 24 mill.

26, 21, — 18 mill.

Hab. ad Sikrigali et Patharghata, Bahar, et ad Rajmahal Bengaliz.

In rupibus umbrosis et sub arboribus, inter folia emortua, annis

1831 et 1835, ipse detexi.

A variety occurs in which the shell is of a pale buff colour,

darker towards the apex, the bands and markings being obsolete,

and the colour of the peristome being equally vivid with that of

the typical shells. Another thinner variety occurs, in which the

interior coloured lip is not present.

Sowerby, in 1834, marked this species as C. Involvulus ; how-

ever, the typical form of that species proves to be more depressed,

the umbilicus more open, the aperture more rounded, with an

orange interior, while in this species it is czrulean white or

milky.

A description of the animal will be found in the last vol. of

the ‘ Zoological Journal’ under the name of C. Involvulus.

With a general resemblance in form to C. Indicus, Desh., it

will be at once distinguished by the absence of a keel or acute

spiral ribs, by the wider umbilicus, less developed peristome, and

more elevated form. The very gradual arcuation of the colu-

mellar lip is also an essential character, detracting from the

uniformity of the circular aperture. The sinus observable at

this part, impinging on the plane of the aperture, is also con-

spicuous in C. Jndicus.

3. Cyclophorus Exul, nobis.

Testa angustissime umbilicata, fere perforata, globoso-turbinata, tenui,

undique lineis spiralibus vix elevatis, superne 8-9 valde obtusis,

Mr. W.H. Benson on some species of Cyclophorus. 413

striisque obliquis teneribus decussata ; sub epidermide fusca, tenui,

albida; superne castaneo flexuoso-strigata, fascia nulla mediana

cincta; spira-turbinata, apice obtusulo, rufescente, suturis di-

stinctis. Anfractibus 5 convexis, ultimo rotundato. Apertura vix

obliqua, subcirculari, superne angulata ; peristomate simplici, tenui,

expanso, reflexiusculo, vix continuo, margine columellari umbilicum

non pervium subtegente.

Diam. major 253, min. 20, alt. 17 mill. Apert. intus 13 mill. longa.

Hab. ad Bhamoury, ad pedem montium Rohillano-Himalayanorum.

Detexit W. J. M. Boys.

This is the most northerly Cyclophorus known. It was dis-

eovered by the late Captain W. J. M. Boys, an indefatigable

collector in several branches of zoology, and the discoverer of

the genus Boysia, Pfr., by whose recent decease, as well as by that

of Dr. J. F. Bacon, another Indian collector of great experience,

science has sustained a severe loss.

This shell differs from the pale-lipped C. pyrotrema, in which

the aperture is not fully developed, by its more globose form,

ventricose last whorl, small impervious umbilicus, more regular

sculpture above, stronger sculpture below, thinness, pale colour,

and the absence of any medial fascia. From the pale-lipped

variety of C. Stenomphalum with undeveloped peristome, it differs

by the greater breadth of the aperture in proportion to its length,

its non-pervious umbilicus, the absence of any carina at the

periphery, the more closely suleate and regular sculpture above,

the extension of the sculpture on the under side into the umbi-

licus, its pale suite of colours, and by the absence of any colour-

ing below the periphery. From C. Jndicus it may be known by

the absence of keel, suite of colours, sculpture, and aperture.

4. Cyclophorus Tryblium, nobis.

Testa subaperte umbilicata, depresso-turbinata, solida, superne costis

7-8 planulatis munita, albida, castaneo marmorata, subtus leevigata,

versus periomphalum albida, fascia nigricante ad peripheriam

ornata ; spira turbinata, superne rubella, apice acutiuscula. An-

fractibus 5 convexis, ultimo subdepresso, obsolete angulato, subtus

valde convexo; umbilico profwndo, infundibuliformi. Apertura

vix obliqua, subcirculari, intus lutescente; peristomate subsimplice,

continuo, breviter adnato, pallide aurantio, subincrassato, superne

angulatim adscendente, margine dextro subrevoluto, columellari

subexpanso, planato. Opere.?

Diam. major 47, minor 38, alt. 29 mill. Apert. intus 20 mill, longa.

Hab. ad Darjiling. Detexit H. Chapman.

I find a single specimen, not in fine condition, among shells

kindly collected at my request by Dr. Chapman, to whom I was

also indebted for the first known specimen of Meg. funiculatum,

414 Mr. W.H. Benson on the Geographical Distribution

It does not appear to have been detected by any subsequent

collector in the environs of Darjiling. Nearly equal in size to

C. Himalayanus, Pfr., from the same locality, it is distinguished

from it by its form, depressed last whorl, wide umbilicus, sculp-

ture, verticality of the angle at the upper part of the mediocre

aperture, and by the colour of the peristome. There are indi-

cations of a broad light chestnut zone below the dark band at

the periphery. The compressed character of the last whorl

_presents a strong contrast to the subglobose form of C. Hima-

layanus in that part.

Geographical Distribution of the Genera of the Cyclostomacea

in Hindostan.

In the 8th vol. of the New Series of the ‘Annals,’ I attempted

a view of the geographical distribution of the Indian species of

Cyclostoma as then known to me. I am now able to add some

species to the list, and it will prove imteresting to exhibit the

manner in which the different genera, as recognized by Pfeiffer,

are distributed, from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin.

Cyclophorus, Montf.

Begmning with the largest and most extensively spread form,

Cyclophorus, we find it at Darjiling in the Sikkim territory,

occurring at an elevation of 7000 feet, under the gigantic types

C. Himalayanus, Pfr., C. Tryblium, nobis, C. Stenomphalus, Ptr.,

the variety which I designated as C. Aurora, and the small

widely umbilicated C. Phenotopicus, nobis. This region carries

a subtropical vegetation to a great elevation. At some hundred

miles to the west and north, at the foot of the Rohilkhund

Himalaya, where a similar vegetation begins to give way to more

Kuropean types, we find the outpost of the genus, in this direc-

tion, in C. Hxul, nobis; and, as might be expected, the shell is

dwarfed in size, light in structure, and modestly coloured. It

may be remarked, in illustration, that C. turgidus, Pfr., is

found near the Chinese coast, as high as Loochoo, in a parallel,

however, less northerly than Bhamoury. The influence of a

marine climate tells on that species im its superior solidity and

colouring.

Crossing, to the eastward, the valley of Assam, and arriving

at the group of mountains south and east of the Berhampooter

river, we meet some fine forms in C. eximius, Mouss., Pearsoni,

and zebrinus, nobis, Stenomphalus, and Bensoni*, Pfeiffer; C.

* The habitat of this shell was unknown to Pfeiffer. I have the ordinary

variety from the northern base of the Khasya hills, near Gowahatty, im

the Assam valley. The specimens were kindly sent to me by Captain

of the Cyclostomacea in Hindostan. 415

milium, nobis, a dwarf species from the warm southern valleys,

perhaps belongs to this type. Again traversing westerly the

Gangetic plain of Bengal, C. pyrotrema, nobis, appears among

the first rocks met with in the outlying portions of the Rajmahal

range, where the stream of the Ganges makes a bend to the

south ; and the genus proceeds along the ranges, with a southerly

tendency, towards the western side of the peninsula, skirting

the north bank of the Nerbudda, and is represented by a fine

new species, C. Pirrieanus, Pfr., in the Khoondah hills; by C.

stenomphalum at Chyabasa in Singhboom ; and at Mandoo, west

of Indore, by a species not well ascertained, but which has been

attributed, erroneously, to C. Volvulus, Miill., although widely

differmg from the Pulo Condore form. Traversing the river-

valleys of the Nerbudda and Tapty, we find C. Indicus, Desh.,

inhabiting the warm region of the Concan (enclosed between

the sea and the high Western Ghauts) and the adjacent islets.

A small species, from the description evidently new, and

probably attributable to this type, was found near the ridge of

these hills by Lieut. A. E. Benson, at the Caves of Karli, but

unfortunately was broken and the fragments thrown away.

This hint may assist in securing its detection when a concho-

logist may have an opportunity of visiting the spot. Still

farther south, on the summits of the range at Mahabuleshwar,

C. altivagus, nobis, adds another form to the genus; and at

the expanded southern termination of the ridge, the Nilgherries

present a rich series in C. Nilagiricus, Jerdoni, ceeloconus, cuspi-

datus*, and ravidus, nobis, and Stenostoma, Sow., the two last

belonging, equally with the Darjilmg C. Phenotopicus, to the

planorbular type. It is to be remarked that Cyclophorus, after

obliquely crossing Central India, is confined to the high ridge

on the western side of the peninsula, and that no species has

yet been discovered on the eastern coast, nor in the intermediate

hills and plains, its place being partially supplied by other

genera of the Cyclostomacea.

Alyceus, Gray.

This is the most northerly and westerly genus of the Cyclo-

stomacea in Hindostan. Its head-quarters appear to be in the

Sikkim Himalaya, where A/. constrictus and Al. Urnula, nobis,

inhabit Darjiling. To the north-west the genus is represented

by Al. strangulatus, Hutton, in the sub-Himalayan ridges of

Rowlatt. An elegant variety has been sent from Chittagaon, in the north-

east angle of the Bay of Bengal, in whieh the peristome is of a beautiful

translucent yellowish-orange colour.

* A specimen of C. cuspidatus with the operculum shows that it belongs

to Cyclophorus. Pfeiffer had placed it among the species incerte sedis.

416 Mr. W. H. Benson on the Geographical Distribution

Kemaon, Sirmore, and as far as the banks of the Sutlej, The

only other species known occurs in Cochin-China.

Megalomastoma, Guiding.

This form is confined to the Hastern Himalaya, and presents

only two species, M. funiculatum, nobis, from Darjilmg, and /.

pauperculum, Sow., brought by Griffith from Bootan, to the

north of the Assam valley. The nearest known point at which

it again appears is Tavoy, where M. sectilabre, Gould, is met

with. In Ceylon it is represented by eight different species of

the allied form, Cataulus.

Pterocyclos, Benson,

Appears in the south-east angie of the Berhampooter river in

Pt. hispidus and parvus, Pearson; again, across the plain of

Bengal, in the Rajmahal range, we ‘find the typical species, Pt.

rupestr is, nobis. Near the ‘eastern coast of the peninsula, in

the Northern Circars, the same species is repeated; and near

Salem, and at the eastern foot of the Nilgherries, Pt. bilabiatus,

Sowerby, and nanus, nobis, form a link with the Cingalese

representatives of the genus.

Cyclotus, Guilding.

Occupies a subcentral zone. It was detected at Neemuch,

to the north of the Nerbudda, in Southern Rajpootana, by

Captain Hutton, in C. semistriatus, Sow., and the Dekkan habitat

of the species cited by Sowerby has been lately verified by my

son, who has taken it at Kirkee, a few miles from Poonah. A

second species, C. semidiscoideus, Sow., (aratus, nobis), occurs

in the Northern Cirears, near the east coast of the penmsula*.

It may be observed that the Cochin-Chinese species described

and figured by Souleyet, in the ‘ Voyage of the Bonite,’ as

Cyclostoma Tourannense, and placed by Pieifier in the list of

species only known to him by figures, is clearly to be referred

to Cyclotus from the description of the operculum ; although

that accessory piece has apparently been exchanged, by the

engraver of the plate, with the operculum of the Penang Lepto-

poma (Cyclostoma) Garreli, Soul.

Leptopoma, Pfeiffer.

I have no certain information of the occurrence of this genus

in the tract under consideration. I have described two species

* The discovery of an operculum in a specimen of Cyclostoma filocinctum,

nobis, from the Nilgherries, enables me to range it as a third species of

Cyclotus, belonging to the same division as C. substriatus, Sow. The

characters of the shell confirm the propriety of this location.

of the Cyclostomacea in Hindostan. AIT

from Ceylon, and it probably extends to the peninsula. Cyelo-

stoma spurcum, Grateloup, alleged to have been found near

Bombay, is referred by Pfeiffer, with a mark of doubt, to Lepto-

poma*; and the same author, on the authority of Mr. Cuming’s

collection, assigns a small variety of the widely-spread L. vitreum,

Sow., to the Nilgherries; but the name of the finder is not

recorded, and it has not been met with by Dr. Jerdon. Dr.

Cantor took it on an islet near Penang; its occurrence on the

mainland lying west of the Bay of Bengal requires confirmation.

Cyclostomus, Monif.

Dr. Pfeiffer assigns my species C. ¢fersum, trom the Khasya

hills south-east of the Berhampooter, and my Nilgherry C. filo-

einctumt and Trochlea (the two first with marks of doubt), to

this division. In the absence of opercula it is difficult to decide;

but I am inclined to dissent from his judgment in regard to

the two latter. It seems to me probable that C. filocinctum

must eventually be referred to Cyclophorus; and C. Trochlea

does not well agree with the species with which it has been

associated. May it not be an Omphalotropis?

Another stray species from the southern base of the Khasya

hills remains, viz. Cyclostoma sarritum, nobis, which, in the

absence of the operculum, cannot well be determined; it is

placed by Pfeiffer among the species incerte sedis. Its form is

suggestive of Cyclostomus.

It will be seen, from the above enumeration, how rich in

Cyclostomacea the tract under consideration is already proved

to be. Thirty-six well-ascertained species inhabit it, and three

others are indicated. When the valleys of Nipal (from the

Ghagra to Sikkim), Bootan, the extensive jungle tract of Central

India, and the extreme southern point of the peninsula, shall

have been properly explored, we may expect interesting additions

to the family. Most of the species enumerated have been made

known only very recently, and every year adds several species to

the catalogue.

Diplommatina, Bens.

If this genus should, on further examination (not of cabinet

specimens, but of the animal in the shell), be proved, contrary

to the experience of those who have observed the species in their

native hills, to belong to the Cyclostomacea, three more species

* | find, on reference to the Monograph, that Pfeiffer includes it under

Opotoma. A consideration of the characters leads me to the conclusion

that its place will be found eventually in Cyclotus.

+ Vide note on this species under the heading “ Cyclotus.”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 27

418 Messrs H, and A. Adams on the genus Tyleria.

will require to be added to the list. All these inhabit the north-

western portion of the Himalaya. Two of them may be found

in company with Alyceus strangulatus, wherever that little shell

occurs. D. Huttoni, Pfr., is the most local, having only been

taken at Simla, and at Jerripani below Mussoorie. D. folliculus,

Pfr., and costulata, Hutt., are abundant in the whole region.

In conclusion, I must again advert to the total absence of the

Cyclostomacea in the vast plains which extend from the mouth

of the Indus round by the north of Delhi, and along the river

system of the Ganges, to the head of the Bay of Bengal, cutting

off from the Himalaya the central and southern mountain groups

of the Indian peninsula; a deficiency attributable, in all proba-

bility, to the want of rocky shelter, inasmuch as every variety of

aspect, from the most arid desert to a moist soil supporting the

richest tropical vegetation, is present in the circuit. It must

however be remarked, that in the sandstone tract, extending from

the west of the Sone river to Delhi, which is generally of an arid

character, and even where primary and igneous rocks are up-

heaved beneath them, as in Bundelkhund, no Cyclostomatous

shell has rewarded the researches of myself and others.

Spa, Belgium, 13th November, 1854.

XXXIX.—Description of a new genus of Bivalve Mollusca.

By H. and A. Apams.

TyxeriA, H. and A. Adams.

SHELL oblong, equivalve; valves thin, nearly membranaceous,

covered with a thin epidermis, rounded anteriorly, gapmg and

slightly produced posteriorly. Hinge composed of a carti-

lage-pit in each valve, cartilage mternal, ligament partly ex-

ternal; a calcareous lamina extending from the cartilage-pit

anteriorly, as far as the front muscular scar, supported in its

length by calcareous septa and free anteriorly; pallial im-

pression with slight posterior sinus.

The curious little shell on which this genus is founded, and

which we have named Tyleria fragilis, was discovered, buried in

sand, in the interior of other shells from Mazatlan, by R. W.

Tyler, Esq., to whom we have dedicated the genus,—a gentleman

well known as an enthusiastic conchologist and an indefatigable

collector. The calcareous lamella is connected with the interior

of the valves (for it is present in both) by means of vertical

plates, which, being produced on each side, cause the lamella to

assume a dentate appearance.

Royal Naval Hospital, Haslar.

Mr. R. Warington on Artificial Sea Water. 419

XL.—On Artificial Sea Water.

By Rospert Warineton, Esq.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

In the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for July last,

you published a short communication from Mr. Gosse, on the

artificial formation of sea water, and having lately had my atten-

tion especially directed to this paper by a friend who wished to

put the formula given into practice, I was surprised at the dif-

ference in the proportions of the ingredients as compared with

what I had myself employed in the course of 1853, more par-

ticularly from the circumstance, that when Mr. Gosse called

upon me in January last, and consulted me on the feasibility of

the plan, I told him that there could be no difficulty in the

matter, as [ had made and had then in use several small quan-

tities artificially produced, and that all that was required was

that a good analysis should be taken as the basis for deducing

the proportions, and at the same time referred him to the source

from which I myself had worked, namely Dr. E. Schweitzer’s

analysis of the water of the English Channel taken off Brighton.

Now, as numerous parties have been inquiring respecting this

subject, and the erroneous formula has been copied into other

Journals, it may prevent much annoyance as well as disappoint-

ment if this matter is set right. The error appears to be two-

fold, the one arismg from miscalculation, the other from assu-

ming that the sulphate of magnesia as given in the analysis,

represented the ordinary crystallized salt, and not the anhydrous

sulphate, which is always the case in giving analytical results,

and which is, indeed, so specified by Dr. Schweitzer in his paper,

when he states that the dry residue obtained by the evaporation

of 1000 grains of water amounts to 35°25628 grs., consisting of

the following ingredients :—

Chloride of sodium . . . 27:05948 grains.

Fin Ot, maenestum, 7 tl aeGOGa8. 75,

ae of potassium -. .... 076552 _.,,

Bromide of magnesium . . 0°02929 _,,

Sulphate of magnesia . . 2°29578 i,

Carbonate of me’. . 3. ..: O;08d01 .

sulphate of lime SNe en EAOOe >

Now, as these results all stand in the same denomination, grains,

it is competent for us to treat them as pounds, ounces, or any

other weight that may best suit our purpose, and as the decimal

27%

420 Mr. R. Warington on Artificial Sea Water.

notation is so readily capable of facilitating these deductions,

there is no difficulty im at once arriving at the correct relations.

Thus, the gallon of water being equal to 10 pounds, if we wish

to estimate the proportions of materials for that quantity, or for

100 pounds, 10 gallons, it only requires that the decimal point

should be removed, in the first case, two figures, or, in the latter,

one figure to the left, and we have the whole operation com-

pleted and the result exhibited in decimal fractions of the pound ;

thus for 100 lbs. or 10 gallons :—

Chloride of sodium . 2°706

fs of magnesium 0°367

x of potassium . 0:076

Bromide of magnesium . 0:003 f anhydrous=0-472

Sulphate of magnesia . . 0:230)_ crystals.

F oflime. . . . 0140 f anhydrous=0°178

Carbonate of lime . . . 0°003 crystallized sulphate.

It will be observed, that in order to simplify the notation I

have decreased the extended places of decimals and employed

the nearest amount to such fraction, by this means throwing off

three places of figures. Then by reducing these decimal frac-

tions to the nearest value in terms of avoirdupoise pounds and

ounces, the proportions will stand thus for the 100 pounds of

water produced :—

Gosse.

Chloride of sodium . 43+ ounces. 35 ounces.

odd Of Magnesium. 14 4's! 4910 ei Al yy

1 ]

s9_ Of potassium... . If , Q ds

Bromide of magnesium. . . . 21 grains. ——

Sulphate of magnesia anhydrous 71 91

+ ounces. dist By

3 07. =crystals :

2 0

21 grains. ae

Balgne of lime anhydrous 24 Qu OZ.

=crystallized . F

Carbonate of lime

In order to exhibit the extent of the error I have alluded to,

T have placed in the adjoining column the proportions deduced

by Mr. Gosse from the same analysis and for the same quantity

of water, one of the ingredients having been omitted, besides the

two that exist in so small a quantity. Now, as Dr. Schweitzer’s

analysis is on a given weight of which the saline ingredients

constitute a part, it becomes necessary to deduct their weight

from the 10 gallons of water employed; this, it will be seen,

amounts to 60% ounces, or m round numbers to 60 ounces,

which is equal to three imperial pints, so that 9 gallons and

5 pints will be the true proportion of water to be used.

The next point that presents itself is as to the best mode of

Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis. 42]

obtaiming these saline ingredients for the manufacture of the

artificial sea water, as many of them, not being usually kept for

sale, would have to be made for the purpose. There cannot be a

question that by far the simplest plan would consist in the eva-

poration of the sea water itself in large quantities at the source,

preserving the resulting salt in closely stopped vessels to prevent

the absorption of moisture, and vending it in this form to the

consumer ; the proportion of this dry saline matter being

565 oz. to the 10 gallons of water, less the 3 pints. This plan

was suggested by Dr. E. Schweitzer himself for the extempora-

neous formation of sea water for medicinal baths, and, on in-

quiry since writing the above, I find that such a preparation is

manufactured by Messrs. Brew and Schweitzer of No. 71 East

Street, Brighton, under the title of ‘‘ Marine Salts for the instan-

taneous production of sea water.” Mr. H. Schweitzer writes me,

that he has for many years made this compound in accordance

with his cousin’s analysis. The proportion ordered to be used

is 6 oz. to the gallon of water and stirred well until dissolved.

Apothecaries’ Hall, Nov. 1, 1854.

XLI.—On the Genus Mermis*. By Dr. G. Meissner.

Analysis by Dr. W. I. Burnerrft.

A MeMorIR of great value has recently appeared upon these sin-

gular parasites, which has the double importance of quite clear-

ing up the history of these animals in all their stages, and of

furnishing a contribution to the histology of the lower animals

of a most valuable character. This memoir has been prepared

by G. Meissner of Munich, under the directions of Siebold, who

furnished him with specimens and other opportunities for its

successful prosecution. Seldom have we met with a paper of

more careful and extended detail, and which leaves so little be-

hind for investigators in the same direction. Added to this

textual detail, every anatomical point is illustrated by admirably

executed figures. With our limited space we can at best notice

only a few of the more prominent points of this paper.

In the first place it should be remarked that the natural

history of the Gordiacet was for a long time quite obscure and

little understood, and many detached observations not of a

parallel character did not improve the subject. To the sagacity

* Beitrage zur Anatomie und Physiologie von Mermis albicans. Von

Dr. Georg Meissner. In Siebold und Kolliker’s Zeitschrift fiir wissen-

schattliche Zoologie, v. 1853, p. 207-285.

+ From Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Arts for July 1854.

422 Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis.

of Siebold we are indebted for the successful solution of the

whole enigma, and the results he has obtained are as singular

as new*. It appears that these animals live part of their

life as regular entozoons, and the rest as independent beings.

And what is most remarkable, they enter the animals in which

they are for a time parasites, not m the form of eggs, as do

other Helminths, but as more or less developed forms. The

animals in which they live as parasites are almost exclusively

Insects of different orders, in both the larva and imago states.

In the abdominal cavity of the larva of Yponomeuta albicans,

Siebold found numerous undeveloped forms of Mermis albicans.

Watching these he found that after further growth, they per-

forated the skin of these larvee and made their escape. These

freshly-escaped individuals were all sexless, but each contained

a considerable corpus adiposum, at the expense of which their

. sexual parts were subsequently developed. These animals

crawled about, and soon entered some damp earth, where they

remained several months, durmg which time they were further

developed, changed their skin, “eopulated and laid their eggs.

The embryos hatched from these eg ges had the filamentoid form

of the adults, and as Siebold conjectured that they mtended to

come to the surface for the sake of entermg in their turn young

insects, he procured quite young larve of this same imsect and

put them in a glass vesael together with the young Mermithes.

In a few hours they had entered the body of these larve, two or

three in each. Siebold took the precaution to make this pomt

certain by carefully examining the larve previously and deter-

mining that their bodies were free of these parasites. After

this, the same round of life is again passed. It would appear,

then, that these animals pass their earlier (but not their

embryonic) conditions of life, during which they attain their

development—in fact a proper larval state—in ‘the bodies of

insects, and that their life as distinct sexual individuals is free

and non-parasitic. Siebold found this species in very many

genera of Lepidoptera, also in different species of Orthoptera,

Coleoptera, and Diptera. We may mention that the common

Cricket, as also some other Orthoptera, are frequent recipients of

Mermis, and we have seen many specimens of this kind. Until

Siebold’s recent contributions we had supposed, in common with

other naturalists, that these Helminths merely hibernated in

these msects, but this is now quite improbable.

So much for a brief reference to the mode of life of these

* Siebold. See the Entomol. Zeitung zu Stettin, 1848, p. 292, 1850,

p. 329; also Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Mermithen, in Siebold und

Kolliker’s Zeitsch. fiir wissensch. Zool. vy. 1853, p. 211.

Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis. 423

animals ; we will now turn and glance at some of the important

histological points, as wrought out by Meissner.

Cutaneous System.—Omitting the very full details given of

the structure of the skin in these animals, its composition of three

distinct layers, &c., we will allude only to the fact that chetene

enters into its formation. This fact is important as corrobora-

tive of other observations. Chitine was formerly supposed to

belong exclusively to the teguments of the Arthropoda, being

particularly prominent in the skin of insects ; but recent chemi-

eal analyses of the teguments of lower animals show that it

occurs in nearly every class of the Invertebrata*. It can there-

fore no longer be regarded as having diagnostic characteristics

for certain classes, but sustains relations to the external dermic

skeleton of the Invertebrata generally, analogous to those of

bone in the four classes of Vertebrata.

Muscular System.—This was found quite developed, and it is

a singular fact that all the muscles have a longitudinal direction.

Transverse muscles do not exist. But Meissner has indicated a

histological feature of the muscular tissue in these animals, which

deserves notice. It is well known that striated muscular fibre is

rather limited in its distribution among the Invertebrata. We

have not observed it below the Articulata, and have regarded it

as actually absent in the remaining classes—the Cephalopoda,

Cephalophora, Acephala, Annelides, Turbellaria, Helminthes,

Echinodermata, Acalephz, and Polypi. Now, we have hitherto

supposed from observations that the fibre being the true embryo-

logical element of muscle, a further division into fibrillee occurred

only in the higher form of this fibre, the so-called striated muscle ;

in other words, that a fibrillated structure of muscular fibre was

found only in the striated form. But Meissner describes the

fibre of Mermis as readily capable of being split up into longi-

tudinal fibrille of the most regular and delicate character, and

yet neither these fibres nor fibrille are properly transversely

striated. He remarks however, that an appearance like stria-

tion is sometimes observed during a wave-like contraction of

the fibre+. Results of this character which the more careful

research of the present day is developing, in the study of the

lower animals especially, fully mdicate that the subject of muscular

tissue is not well understood as to its manifold variations of

* Besides the present case we would refer to the following: Grube,

Miiller’s Arch. 1848, p. 461, and Wiegmann’s Arch. 1850, p. 253; Schultze,

Beitr. zur Naturgesch. d. Turbellarien, p. 33; and Leuckart in Siebold

und Kolliker’s Zeitsch. 1851, p. 192, and Wiegmann’s Arch. 1852, p. 22.

+ We suspect it is this same wave-like aspect that has been often mistaken

for striation in the muscles of some of the lowest animals, thereby leading

to no little discrepancy among observers in their statements.

424 Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis.

form ; at least, after we have left the typical forms of the higher

animals. Thus, I may mention that Leydig* found the muscles

of the alimentary canal of Artemia among the Crustacea, com-

posed of spindle-shaped instead of disk-like elements, so arranged,

with the points and bases alternating, as to form a symmetrical

fibrilla. In conclusion, we may remark upon this system, that

Meissner found no sarcolemma, and no perimysium of the

muscular layer.

Nervous System.—The researches of Dr. Meissner in this

direction have particular interest, because the existence of this

system in the Gordiacei has been generally denied, and, if seen

by previous observers, their statements were most unsatisfactory T.

But the histology of this system is quite as interesting.

Meissner found it so developed that he divides it into three

portions: a central, a peripheric, and a splanchnic portion.

The central portion is divided into two parts, one at the ce-

phaliec, the other at the caudal extremity of the body. In the

first are two anterior and two posterior cephalic ganglia, and an

cesophageal ring composed of a superior and an inferior ganglion

united by lateral commissures. In the second part, situated in

the tail, there are three fusiform ganglia of like character, but

smaller than those of the head.

The peripheric portion consists of six filaments given off from

the upper part of the anterior cephalic ganglia, which go to as

many papille on the head, which are probably organs of sense,

—of two late-al cords arismg from the superior cesophageal

ganglion, which traverse the sides of the body, giving off filaments

to the muscles, the skin, &c., and of some smaller twigs from

the cephalic centres for the muscles of that region.

The splanchnic portion consists of two lateral trunks arising

from the oesophageal ganglion, which soon meet and unite on

the median line of the body, forming one cord which extends to

the tail. From this cord are given off filaments to the organs

of vegetative and reproductive life.

The three cords thus formed, having traversed the body, end

each in one of the three ganglia above described. We can here

allude to only one more point in the disposition of the nervous

system; this is the final termination of the nerve-filament in

muscle. According to our author, a twig enters the muscular

fibre at right angles to the course of the latter, and upon its

entrance divides into two twiglets, one of which runs with the

* Ueber Artemia salina und Branchipus stagnalis, in Siebold und

Kolliker’s Zeitsch. ii. p. 280, Taf. 8. fig. 6.

+ Berthold and Blanchard both supposed they saw cords which might

be nerves, but their observations were wholly unsatisfactory ;—for references

see Siebold and Stannius’ Comp. Anat., Amer. ed., vol. 1. § 104. note 5.

Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis. A425

fibre one way and the other the opposite, becoming lost in the

muscular tissue *,

The histology of this system in animals so minute as these,

worked out by an observer so expert and faithful as Meissner,

presents many note-worthy points.

The ganglia in question are composed exclusively of ganglion-

cells or globules which appear to be the infundibuliform expan-

sions of as many nerve. fibres that compose the nervous cord con-

necting these gangha with the general system. There are none

of the so-called nerve-cells usually found in nervous centres—in

fact these central masses rather resemble true ganglionic forma-

tions, excepting that they are terminal instead of on the course

of a nervous cord. Meissner’s description and figures, especially

the latter, are so good, as to leave no doubt that there is

here a direct continuity of the nerve-fibre with the ganglionic

vesicle.

In a former notice we alluded to some discrepancy on this

point, and as this continuity had been observed by some, and yet

not seen by others who had searched carefully for it, we suggested

that this direct connection, when present, might be an exceptional

condition. But numerous researches since published, and espe-

cially the very complete memoir of Axmann7, represent this as a

very common disposition of the elements of nervous centres in

Man and the Mammalia. The subject is indeed somewhat

obscure in a functional point of view, for what is the interpreta-

tion of this direct continuity of the vesicular with the tubular

portion of this system? Certainly it is not the essential condition

of function between the two, or all nerve-fibres would terminate

in this manner, and there would be no ganglionic vesicles but

those having this connection. But this, as is well known, is far

from being the case. We leave the subject until another time.

As to the structure of the peripheric nerves, our author describes

them as having at first a distinct fibrillated structure as usual, but

that this gradually disappears and the nerve appears as a

homogeneous cord. But from our own investigations upon the

termimal nerves of some insects, we suspect that this disappear-

ance of the true fibrille may have been apparent and nut real ;

for we have, in the cases referred to, thought that such was the

ease, but by using higher powers with some reagents, the fibrillz

were seen. We think therefore that whatever may be the mode

* ‘As Meissner observes, a similar disposition is mentioned by Doyére

(Ann. d. Sci. Nat. 1840, xiv. p. 346) in the muscles of the Tardigrada, and

by Quatrefages (did. 1843, xix. p. 300) in the Eolidina, some Annelides

and Rotatoria.

+ Beitr. z. mikroskop. Anat. u. Phys. d. Ganglien-Nerven-systems des

Menschen u. d. Wirbelthiere. Berlin, 1853.

4.26 Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis.

of termination of the nerve-fibre, the fibrillar structure is never

lost.

Digestive Apparatus.—This structure, according to Meissner,

presents so many peculiarities and is so widely different from any-

thing observed in other animals, that we almost relinquish any

attempt to give even a brief description of it, without the aid of

figures. In the first place, the alimentary canal has no anal or

excretory passages, and therefore the food and assimilation must

be such as to leave little or no so-called feecal matter.

From the cireular buccal orifice a semi-canal proceeds a short

distance, when it passes into another structure. This semi-canal

is the cesophagus. The structure into which it passes is a tube

quite small at first, but which soon expands ; it is filled with a

finely granular sponge-like substance, and is alternately dilated

on each side into sacs. Through this laterally varicose tube

the semi-canal of an cesophagus extends to its very end. Sup-

pose then a tube with alternate lateral dilatations, filled with a

spongy substance, and through which runs a semi-canal or half-

tube like an cesophageal groove. Hach of these dilatations has an

inversion—a folding in of its internal membrane, producing an

infundibuliform body in the dilatation itself. This body opens

through a prolongation of the external membrane of the dilata-

tion, which is continuous into a tube connecting with some adipose

receptacles.

The food passes along the semi-canal or groove, is gradually

absorbed by the spongy substance filling the dilatation, thence

passes into the invested body by endosmotic absorption, and is

then conveyed as assimilated material into the fat-receptacles

which lie in the cavity of the body. These receptacles are store-

houses of nutriment and are particularly enlarged and developed

during the larval condition,—their contents being used for the

formation of the sexual parts afterwards. Now as there is no

vascular system in these animals, the dispersion of the nutrient

material for the growth and substance of the various tissues must

take place by permeation and endosmosis from the fat-bodies

which extend over and between all the organs. This assimilation

without any particular excretion is a remarkable fact ; but it

appears more conceivable when we bear in mind the ceconomy

of the animal. Its larval or parasitic state is like that of insects

—merely preparatory for the ulterior changes of its full develop-

ment. During this time its food is probably mostly pure fat,

which has only to be taken up and stowed away as material for

the development of the reproductive organs. This last ensues

during a quiescent state, and after the full discharge of the

sexual functions, the animal probably dies.

Genitalia.—Males.—The disparity in numbers of males and

Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis. 427

females was remarkably wide—our author having found only

three males among several hundred specimens examined. He

divides the internal organs into festis, vas deferens, vesicula semi-

nalis, and ductus ejaculatorius; but these are all contimuous,

forming a cecal tube stretching from the anterior portion of the

body to the caudal extremity. The testis consists of the infun-

dibuliform ceeeal extremity of this tube and is lined with nucle-

ated, epithelial (?) cells.

The external organs consist of two penises situated one on

each side of the ductus ejaculatorius im a sheath. They are

composed of two somewhat curved half-canals disconnected when

unprotruded with the internal organs ; but when protracted, they

form a more or less closed tube projecting beyond the external

orifice of the duct.

Females.—Meissner divides the internal female organs, which

are double, into five portions: ovary, vitellus-organ, albumen-

sac, tuba, and uterus. Their names indicate their respective

functions, and we can here enter into no description of their

intimate structure.

In connection with this should be noticed one point not a little

remarkable, that is, a kind of hermaphroditism occurring in

these animals.

Meissner found individuals which had perfectly well- formed

internal female genital organs, but whose caudal extremity was

wholly male. Thus, there. were the penises, with their protractor

and retractor muscles, their sheaths—in fact, all the external or-

gans of the male, yet im these individuals no trace of mternal

male or of external female organs could be found. Moreover

these organs present precisely the same characteristics as though

in proper males and females, and had also a functional activ ity,—

eggs being found in the ovaries, &c. But this anomaly was

never foarid in the inverse sense, that is, female external and male

internal organs. Here then is presented the striking peculiarity

of an animal having double systematically-developed internal

organs of one sex, and at the same time perfectly-formed external

organs of the other sex. This hermaphroditism, it will be seen,

is like that of other animals only in name; for in these last the

double sex is at the expense of the symmetry, one side being

female and the other male, or it is due to modifications of analo-

gous facts by different grades of development, thereby destroying

generally the functional perfection and completeness of each or

one of the forms of the sexual organs. But here we have a per-

fectly symmetrical female internally, with an equally symmetrical

male externally, with no fusion of parts.

In regard to the development of the spermatic particles, our

author’s researches have been minute and quite complete. His

428 Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis.

results confirm the doctrines of K6lliker, Wagner, and ourselves ;

that is, there are parent sperm-cells in which are formed daughter-

cells ; in each of these last there is formed a spermatic particle.

But Meissner is undecided whether this formation occurs through

a metamorphosis of the nucleus of the daughter-cell. Our own

observations have led us fully to think that this nucleus is thus

metamorphosed.

The development of the egg is very remarkable, as it shows,

what we have never clearly understood before, viz. how botryoidal

ovular masses are formed, and moreover carries out the beautiful

analogy existing. even to minute details, between the functions of

the parent sperm-cell and the ovular cell. An ovular or egg-cell

from the ovary is seen; it increases in size and its nucleus seg-

mentates, several nuclei beg formed. These nuclei approach

the surface of what we will now call the parent egg-cell; diver-

ticula are given off from the cell-wall by protrusions containing

each a nucleus. These protrusions become constricted and at

last appear as little daughter-cells, on the surface of the parent-

cell. They now increase at the expense of this last, become

pedunculated, and finally appear as larger pedunculated cells

attached around a common, insignificant centre. These are the

ova, and form groups of var iable number —Meissner having ob-

served as many as twenty, though there are generally less. Thus

formed, their peduncles break off, and they pass from the ovary

proper into the other sections of the genital tube.

There is one other point taken up im connection with this subject

by Meissner, to which we shall briefly allude. We refer to the

wonderful micropyle of Keber, by which it is alleged that the

spermatic particles penetrate the interior of the egg and impreg-

nate it. Meissner has seen nothing to justify the view that such

a structure exists in the eggs of Mermis excepting the remains of

the peduncle above mentioned, and he is not sure of this bemg

hollow. Moreover even if it were hollow, it appears to us wholly

different from the special structure insisted upon by Keber.

As to the embryonic development of Mermis, our author found

nothing essentially different from what had been described by

previous observers upon this order (Grube, Leidy, &c.). No

proper metamorphosis appears to occur, and therefore the newly-

hatched embryos more or less closely resemble in form, &c., the

adults.

In conclusion, we repeat what we said in the begining, that

this memoir is one of the most excellent of its kind we have ever

seen, and the care, patience and fidelity displayed therein will

ensure attention towards its author as one from whom much may

be expected.

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifer. 429

XLII.—On the Fecundation of the Coniferz.

By Dr. W. Hormeistrer*.

Rosert Brown’s prophecy, that the Coniferze would furnish

the fittest material for the detection of the act of reproduction

in Phanerogamic plants, on account of the length of time occu-

pied in the development of their seeds, has not been fulfilled.

Long as the period is m the Coniferz, especially in the Firs,

between flowering and maturity, the development does not pro-

gress gradually, but in intermittent leaps; im the most decisive

epochs it advances with great rapidity, and no external sign is

given of this. Difficulties are placed in the way of observation,

over and above those depending upon the structural conditions,

which explain sufficiently not only the differences of opinion of

the many investigators who have busied themselves with this

question, but also the fact that a by no means inessential feature

of the process of development has hitherto escaped observation.

Schacht has lately published some remarks upon this sub-

jectt. The conclusions he draws from his latest observations,

which deviate from the account given by me three years ago, are

essentially as follows :—

“ Active filaments (spermatozoids) are not formed at any time

in the pollen-tube of the Conifers I have examined. The act

of impregnation in the Conifers zs in no way comparable with

the formation of the germ of the higher Cryptogamia in the in-

terior of the ‘germ-organ’ [Ketm-organ ; this is the name applied

by Schacht to the archegonium].

“ No free cells originate in the corpuscula of the Conifere.

What Hofmeister regarded as cells, are globular spaces filled

with clear fluid, bounded by a denser substance containing fine

granules; they are what are called pseudo-cells (vacuoles) not

uncommonly occurring elsewhere, and making their appearance

in the same way even in the pollen-tube of the Conifers them-

selves * * *, From this it is clear that Hofmeister’s view, that

a cell existing in the corpusculum is impregnated by the pollen-

tube, rests upon a misconception, since no free cell exists in the

corpusculum before the entrance of the pollen-tube (p. 288).

“ When the pollen-tube has penetrated into the corpusculum

in the Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris), it soon swells up slightly ; it

displays itself as a small vesicle in the apex of the corpusculum.

By the formation of a horizontal septum a cell originates in this

vesicle ; this cell divides cross-ways into four daughter-cells. To

* From the ‘ Flora,’ Sept. 14th, 1854. Translated by Arthur Henfrey,

F.R.S. &e. .

+ Beitrage zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Gewiichse, Berlin, 1854,

pp. 287 and 324.

430 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifere.

the short sac-like part of the pollen-tube hangs, at this time,

in the summit of the corpusculum, the body composed of four

cells, which is soon afterwards to be found at the bottom of the

corpusculum, that is to say, at the part opposite to the pomt

where the pollen-tube entered. This cellular body, out of which

are formed not only the so-called ‘lower rosette,’ but the sus-

pensors and the first cell of the embryo, makes its way very gra-

dually to the bottom of the ecorpusculum, detaching itself from

the sac-like portion of the pollen-tube. For the contents of the

corpusculum become very gradually more limpid from above

downwards ; the lower, denser portion, still filled with vacuoles,

consequently supports the cellular body, till at length it reaches

its goal and then undergoes further development. Not unfre-

quently, however, a division of the four cells in a_ horizontal

direction takes place earlier, on which account the cellular body

situated at the base of the corpusculum ordinarily consists no

longer of four simple cells arranged side by side in a rosette, but

of four double cells. I traced this cellular body both in its for-

mation from the end of the penetrating pollen-tube, and also in

its course downwards, so that I have seen it perfectly developed,

composed of four cells, still connected with the sac-like portion

of the pollen-tube, in the apex of the corpusculum, then in the

middle of the latter, and finally in the place of its destination,

the base of the corpusculum (p. 326).

“ In the Yew (Taaus baccata) it is well known that the pollen-

tube applies itself as a large vesicle over the summit of the

embryo-sac ; it descends into the excavations under which the

corpuscula lie, and forms even there, before it has broken through

the softened wall of a corpusculum, in its interior (and apparently

by division, not by free cell-formation) a body composed of four

cells arranged like a rosette, which probably originates, lke the

body composed of four similar cells on the pollen-tube of Pinus,

by the division of one mother-cell (whether by a single or two

successive divisions is a question). I was fortunate enough

several times to detach uninjured the pollen-tube overlying a

corpusculum, so that I was enabled to examine the cellular body

lying in a pouch-like protrusion of the pollen-tube, most closely,

several times and on all sides. The apex, or rather the pouch of

the vesicularly expanded. pollen-tube, in which the said cellular

body lies, in the next place sinks into the corpusculum, and gra-

dually fills it up by expanding until its size corresponds to the

cavity of the corpusculum. The cellular body situated in the

pouch of the pollen-tube, now inside the corpusculum, enlarges

meanwhile by repeated, but not always perfectly regular cell-

division * * *, I succeeded in dissecting out the portion of the

pollen-tube which had penetrated into the corpusculum, perfect,

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifer. 431

in various states of development. Ordinarily however the pollen-

tube is torn off at the point where it fits the opening of the

corpusculum.”

It will be perceived that Schacht’s present description removes

two of the most important points of difference existing between

him and me. The untenable assertion, that in the Abietinez

the pollen-tube gradually fills up the corpusculum, and then pro-

duces the first cell of the embryo in its interior, is wholly re-

tracted. The young pro-embryo of Taxus is represented, in ac-

cordance with nature, as composed of parallel longitudinal rows

of cells, not drawn as formerly*, as a longish-ovate mass of

twelve-sided cells. The microscopical figures, the interpretation

of which is now in question, do not differ importantly from

what I have seen.

In recent years, my researches have been almost exclusively

directed to the fecundation of the Conifer, in those few weeks

during which the most decisive stages of development are passed

through. I have especially endeavoured to make out the course

of development of those free cells which make their appearance

in the expanding pollen-tube, to which I directed attention on a

former occasion}. I have not yet arrived at a decision on this

point ; but on the other hand, I have complete observations

which make me regard the new views of Schacht as unfounded.

I publish the existing results of my later researches, in the hope

of stimulating some other observers to form an opinion on this

subject from their own observations, in the course of the next

few years. First of all, however, I will call attention to the two

facts, sufficiently established before, which stand in direct oppo-

sition to Schacht’s present account, viz. the presence of nume-

rous free cells in the corpusculum before the arrival of the pollen-

tube, and the circumstance that the first cell of the pro-embryo

may be observed, in all the three great divisions of the Conifere,

as a simple cell (not originally as a rosette of cells) pressed into

the lower concavity of the corpusculumt.

It is quite inexplicable how Schacht can question the first of

these conditions. The majority of observers, Mirbel and Spach,

Gottsche and Pineau, mention these cells; Pineau has figured

them in Pinus sylvestris. The vacuoles, which appear earlier than

in the fluid contents of the corpuscula, and which Schacht describes

quite correctly, have nothing in common with these cells.

In the Abietinez, as in the Cupressinex, each corpusculum

* Schacht, Entw. des Pflanzen-Embryon, t. 9. figs. 11, 13.

+ Vergleichende Untersuchungen, &c., p. 132 (1851).

{ Ibid. pp. 133, 136, 137. This stage of development, and still more

the preceding, of which I shall speak subsequently, are passed through so

rapidly, that their being overlooked is readily excusable.

432 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifere.

originally contains only one very large central vacuole ; the pro-

toplasm of the contents of the corpusculum forms a layer over

the wall, on which the primary nucleus of the cell is imbedded*.

This condition is at an end early in the Abietinew, in Pinus

sylvestris at the beginning of June. The watery fluid which filled

the vacuoles becomes distributed into the continually multiplying

smaller globular cavities of the protoplasm, the dimensions of

which become progressively smaller in proportion to the total

internal cavity of the still constantly enlarging corpusculum. The

free globular cells now make their appearance outside these

vacuoles, which from this time disappear one after another. This

condition is particularly evident in Pinus canadensis, where one

or two of these vacuoles still exist shortly before the impregna-

tion, among the collection of floating cells which fill up the whole

corpusculum. That the said structures are cells is proved, not

only by their aspect and the presence of a nucleus, but more

particularly by their often-observed multiplication +.

In the Cupressinez the one central vacuole, and also the pri-

mary nucleus of each corpusculum, are retained until a short time

before the impregnation. A few days only (the space of time

cannot be stated accurately on account of the sceds of the

Cupressineze not being developed simultaneously ; I have every

reason to believe it is at most forty-eight hours) before the

pollen-tubes reach the upper ends of the corpuscula, by push-

ing aside the rosettes of cells covering them, the single vacuole

becomes broken up into several, between and especially above

which the formation of free spherical cells takes place. Mean-

while the primary nucleus of the corpusculum slowly disappears ;

its nucleoli remain visible longer than its membrane.

In general, among the numerous daughter-cells of the corpus-

cula, those situated in the upper end, next the micropyle, are

farther developed than the rest. While the latter appear desti-

tute of a membrane, as ‘primordial cells’ (naked primordial

utricles), the former are usually enclosed in a demonstrable cel-

lulose coat ; in the Firs (Pinus sylvestris, austriaca, maritima) often

appressed against the wall of the corpusculwn or impressed into its

upper convexity, like the germinal vesicles of the Monocotyledons

and Dicotyledons ; in the Pines (Pinus Picea, L., and canadensis)

mostly swimming free, not globular however here, but ovate.

In Taxus, where the number of comparatively large cells appear-

ing free in the corpusculum is but small, a single one ordinarily

swims free in the centre of the corpusculum, while the remainder

adhere to various points on the wall. Here, there is not the

* bid. t. 28. figs. 4, 5.

t Vide Pineau, Ann. des Se. Nat. 3 sér. xi. pl. 6; and my Vergleich.

Untersuch. pl. 29. figs. 1, 3-5,

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifer. 433

least difficulty in observing these cells; im the Abietinez and

the Cupressinez, on the contrary, their outlines are often diffi-

cult to detect, on account of the fluid contents of the corpusculum

and its daughter-cells refracting light in exactly the same de-

gree. But by keeping the preparation for a longer time in

water, still better by treating it with a very dilute acid, all the

conditions come out clearly even in these.

The internal walls of the upper part of the corpuscula of the

Cupressinez become thickened, often very strongly, in the man-

ner of scalariform vessels. In Biotia orientalis, in particular,

these walls when viewed in face present a very elegant appear-

ance, through the transverse streaking, depending on the small

breadth and close apposition of the slit-like thinner parts of the

membrane.

The formation of the free cells in the interior of the pollen-

tube does not commence until its arrival at the albumen-mass,

in the Cupressineze (Juniperus communis, Sabina and virginiana ;

Biotia orientalis), after the rupture and passage through the mem-

brane of the embryo-sac (dissolved at the point of contact) ,andafter

the hollow above the apex of the corpusculum has been filled up.

The earliest conditions (recognized as early by the corpuscula,

with untouched rosette lids, still contaming a large central

vacuole, the formation of free cells in their interior not having

yet taken place) display, swimming in the centre of the expanded

portion of the pollen-tube, one large, free, globular cell with a

very soft membrane, through the fluid contents of which, ren-

dered opake by numerous granules, a central globular nucleus

shines as a lighter space. Preparations in which the pollen-

tube had commenced the displacement of the rosette of cells

covering the corpuscula, frequently exhibited two such cells, or

the cell had a longish ellipsoidal form and contamed two nuclei,

one in each focus. In a few cases I saw three, in two cases

four such globular cells in the end of the pollen-tube. When

there are more than one, they are always smaller than a solitary

one. Other pollen-tubes, taken from ovules where the corpus-

cula were filled with daughter-cells, contained in place of one or

more of these large cells, one or two groups of four to eight

smaller cells, with similar contents to the larger, adherent to the

wall. Sometimes a number of such smaller cells occur with one

large one in the same pollen-tube. In many cases the smaller

separete from one another when the preparation is pulled about

in extracting the pollen-tube. When these smaller cells are

burst by pressure, three things may be distinguished in the con-

tents: very small granules, globular or angular, in which the

three dimensions are about equal; longish corpuscles, spindle-

shaped or stick-shaped, coloured brown by iodine, like the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 28

434 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifere.

smaller granules ; lastly, minute vesicles with very finely gra-

nular, almost transparent contents, of diameter about equalling

the length of the spindle-shaped bodies.

It appears indispensable to the accomplishment of the impreg-

nation, that the pollen-tube should, im the Cupressinez also,

completely displace or push aside the covering rosette of the

corpusculam, so as to come into direct contact with the upper

convexity of the corpusculum. My former statement*, contrary

to this, seems to depend upon an erroneous interpretation of an

observation : either the large cells, apparently situated in the

lower concavity of two corpuscula, observed then (only in one

case) with a perfect preservation of the rosette of cells closmg

up the corpuscula, may have been abnormally enlarged sister-

cells of these corpuscula, beside, not in the corpuscula ;—or, the

pollen-tube may have reached the impregnated corpusculum late-

rally, by a protruded process removed in making the section.

In an uncommonly large number of examinations, I have

never met with anything similar in Juniperus. Cases correspond-

ing to the first hypothesis, I have observed repeatedly, as before f,

in Cupressus, in which the development of pollen-tubes and of

embryos was wholly arrested every year, while the albumen and

the corpuscula attained to their full size—as ordinarily happens in

our climate, probably resulting from the low temperature at the

period of the discharge of the pollen. Phenomena analogous to

the second conjecture occur in the Abietine, where it happens at

times, in the most varied species, that the pollen-tube makes its

way to the corpusculum by penetrating laterally through the

tissue of the albumen, and not by the appointed way, through

the covering-cells of the corpuscula. In Biotia orientalis also I

have observed a pollen-tube penetrate into the endosperm far to

one side of the group of corpuseula; it contained one of the

often-mentioned large cells.

Ordinarily the pollen-tube sends out a short process into the

corpuscula to be impregnated, pushing inwards the softened,

apparently thicker membrane of their upper convexity. At the

same time it pushes the remains of the compressed covering-

cells before it, and penetrates into the interior of the corpus-

culum, through that gelatinous layer, if this has not been, as

often happens, already dissolved and destroyed, More rarely

the pollen-tube merely rests upon the summit of the corpus-

culum; it is equally rare for it to penetrate into it more than

about 54th of its length. Once I found it (in Juniperus com-

munis) advanced as far as $th of the longest diameter of a cor-

* Vergleich. Unters. p. 131. pl. 33. fig. 12.

+ Ibid. pl. 33. fig. 26.

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifer. 435

pusculum. It had only just touched the corpusculum immediately

adjoiming this one, but impregnation had taken place in both.

The rarest cases are those in which the pollen-tube sends out a

slender, very short pouch between the covering-cells of the cor-

pusculum, these at the same time retaining pretty much their

original position and form.

I always found the projecting pouches of the pollen-tubes

closed, even in the cases where it was evident impregnation had

but just taken place: when the first cell of the pro-embryo, free

and of spherical shape, had not yet descended to the bottom of

the corpusculum. In Biodia orientalis it is not difficult to pre-

pare the pollen-tube free from the albumen, and to extract its

perfectly closed projection out of the impregnated corpusculum.

In the Junipers this manipulation is rendered difficult, by the

rapid expansion of the contents of the corpuscula both in pure

water and in solutions of salts or sugar. But the phenomena

usually occurring here in the expansion and final bursting of the

corpuscula are so much the more convincing ; the pouch of the

pollen-tube which had penetrated into the corpusculum is turned

inside out, and a rapid whirling current is set up into it.

Finally, the vesicular expansion bursts, and the contents of the

corpusculum make their way into the interior of the pollen-tube.

After the arrival of the pollen-tube at the corpusculum, one of

the cells which had been produced in its interior increases in

circumference and in its finely-granular contents. In none of

the Cupressinee did I see this cell in contact with the pouch of

the pollen-tube which had penetrated the corpusculum. On the

contrary, in many cases the position of its unaltered sister-cells

rendered such a process in a high degree improbable, inasmuch

as these so filled up the space between that cell and the end of

the pollen-tube, that the enlarged cell could not have made its

way through them. In the earliest conditions of which I could

get a view, the enlarged impregnated cell was in the upper

third of the corpusculum; in other cases in its centre or lower

end, where it is at first only loosely imbedded. In many in-

stances a globular nucleus without nucleoli may be detected in

its centre, in other cases this cannot be made visible. The

region of the corpusculum below the descending impregnated

germinal yesicle, is remarkably poor in cells.

After the impregnated germinal vesicle has become firmly

adherent to the lower end of the corpusculum, it divides, in all

cases, by a horizontal septum. Then first, often only in the

lower cell of the two, occurs the formation of longitudinal septa,

converting the pro-embryo into a body composed of parallel

longitudinal rows of cells.

During this process, those small cells with opake contents

28%

436 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Coniferze.

adherent to the wall, are ordinarily to be found in the interior

of the pollen-tube, but now separate from one another. Some

have burst ; the solid bodies contained within them are diffused

in the cavity of the pollen-tube. Many of the still intact cells

are also frequently shrivelled up. Sometimes the pollen-tube

contains no cellular structures of any kind during the impreg-

nation; but I never missed then the spindle-shaped and stick-~

shaped bodies which were especially accumulated in the pouches

which penetrated into the corpuscula, bemg often joined in num-

bers into bundles. Pollen-tubes of this character could be more

readily dissected out free than those of the first kind, both im

Biotia and in Juniperus. Lastly, it happens that those large

cells are preserved, mostly the majority, in the pollen-tube,

during and after the impregnation; but very much changed ;

flattened into a lenticular or meniscus form, firmly appressed to

the wall of the pollen-tube, sometimes at the side, sometimes at

the bottom. The central nucleus has now vanished ; in its place

are perceived in the cloudy (by transmitted light, yellowish)

contents of the cell, a definite number (8—16) of sharply cir-

cumscribed, circular, bright places (nuclei), between which run

delicate reticulated lines (the faces of contact of daughter-cells)

only to be detected with the best defining magnifiers. This is the

appearance in face; in profile it is perceived that it is a simple

layer of prismatic cellules, into which the large cell has been

divided. In a single instance a fresh, freely swimming, globular,

large cell with a central nucleus was observed in the pollen-tube

of an ovule of Biotia orientalis, in two of the corpuscula of which

the pro-embryos had already made their appearance. In all

these cases those stick-shaped bodies were to be found, even

though sparingly, in the pollen-tubes, outside the large cells.

In pollen-tubes in this condition (which effect impregnation as

freely as the others) | never met with the protruded pouches

sent mto the corpuscula. There is not the slightest difficulty

here in separating the pollen-tube, uninjured, from the albumen

and the fertilized corpuscula.

The appearance of free globular cells in the widely expanded

end of the pollen-tube of Taxus baccata, formerly described and

figured by me*, is also in this plant followed by alterations of

these cells similar to those occurring in the Cupressinee. In

farther developed ovules, such cells appear firmly applied against

the wall of the pollen-tube, much flattened down, and divided

by walls standing crosswise and perpendicular to the mem-

brane of the pollen-tube. This condition of the said cells, the

size of which mostly exceeds that of the young pro-embryo,

* Vergleichende Unters. p. 152, t. 31. fig. 18.

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Feeundation of the Conitere. 437

strikingly resembles in the profile view young conditions of the

pro-embryos, of the Adietinee more particularly, in a lesser degree

those of Taxus itself.

I found the behaviour of the pollen-tubes to the impreg-

nated corpusculum twofold, in Taxus as in Juniperus: either the

pollen-tube sends a short process into the narrow mouth of the

corpusculum, or it applies itself broadly over the summit of the

corpusculum, with a shallow convexity of its membrane projecting

a little way into it. In both cases the five or six cells of the

covering-rosette of the corpusculum were mostly only pushed

asunder and squeezed flat, not completely absorbed. The pollen-

tube was very firmly adherent to them. As they are very inti-

mately connected with their neighbouring cells, the pollen-tube

is usually torn at this place in the attempt to dissect it out from

the impregnated corpusculum. In rare cases the adhering cover-

cells of the corpusculum are separated from their connection and

lifted up with the pollen-tube. Then even the outline of the

pouch of the pollen-tube is frequently rendered indistinct by

adherent and contained granular mucilage, so that it is not often

to be clearly made out whether this pouch is closed or has a

minute opening. But so much the more certainly can we be

convinced of the closure of the flat protusions of the pollen-tube

squeezed in between the cells of the covering-rosette; the form

in which, as it appears to me, the impregnation most frequently

takes place.

According to Schacht’s idea, one of these cell-rosettes, similar

to young pro-embryos, must be formed in the pollen-tube over

each corpusculum to be impregnated, into which, then, after the

destruction of the cover of the corpusculum, the large portion of

the pollen-tube lying above it has to bulge out and insert itself,

carrying the four- or many-celled pro-embryo to the bottom of

the corpusculum. Against this view speak not only the above-

stated, but the following reasons :—

1. In all cases, I find the cell-rosette, which makes its appear-

ance in the pollen-tube, somewhat larger than the earliest rudi-

ment of the pro-enrbryo, and much too large to pass through the

ordinarily narrow mouth of the corpusculum. In particular, the

part of the pollen-tube which is torn off in the attempt to extract

it from the just-impregnated corpusculum, is very small, quite

out of proportion to the size of the cell-rosettes in the pollen-

tube and of the young pro-embryo.

I give a few of the measurements :—

a. Transverse diameter of the young, four-celled pro-embryo,

0°753 millim.

438 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Coniferze.

Transverse diameter of the mouth of the corpusculum into

which a short protrusion of thepollen-tube had penetrated,

0-111 millim.

b. Smallest diameter of a cell-rosette adherent to the lateral

wall of the pollen-tube, 0°500 millim.

Greatest diameter of the same, 1°225 millim.

Transverse diameter of the mouth of a corpusculum mpyreg-

nated by the same pollen-tube, 0°124 milhm.

Transverse diameter of the unicellular rudiment of a pro-

embryo situated at the bottom of the same corpusculum,

0°832 millim.

c. Transverse diameter of the orifice of a pollen-tube torn off

at the point of entrance into the corpusculum, 0:013

millim.

Upper end of the eight-celled pro-embryo situated at the

bottom of this corpusculum, 0°861 muillim.

2. In a pollen-tube dissected free from an impregnated cor-

pusculum, I detected the shrivelled remains of the cell-rosette

contained in it, situated above the point where the latter had

been torn off.

8. The upper part of the corpusculum, not filled up by the

pro-embryo, contained free cells exactly similar to those existing

there before impregnation.

4. There is no reason to doubt that the simple cells, fre-

quently observed, filling up the lower concavity of the corpus-

cula of Taxus baccata and canadensis, are the primary cells of

the pro-embryos. But, in that case, they could not derive their

origin from the cell-rosettes contained in the pollen-tube.

I owe to the kindness of my friend Schacht, a sight of his

preparations of Taawus baccata. They have not been sufficient

to convince me of the correctness of his interpretation. Schacht

has several times observed that in Taxus also (as frequently

happens in Juniperus and the Abietinee) the pollen-tube pene-

trates pretty deeply into the corpusculum and there expands to

a certain extent ;—perhaps an individual peculiarity of the spe-

cimens which furnished Schacht with the materials for his

investigations ; throughout very numerous examinations I have

never met with anything of the kind. These vesicularly-ex-

panded pouches of the pollen-tube, separated from the corpuscles,

were of very various magnitudes. I estimated the diameter of

one at O-l millim.; of another at 0°4 millim. The largest

would therefore have about half filled a corpusculum ; a condition

which is sometimes at least approximatively attained even in the

gigantic corpuscula of the Abietinee. The but mdistinctly

perceptible cellular structures existing im these protruded sacs

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifere. 439

of the pollen-tubes bore no resemblance whatever either to

young pro-embryos of Taxus, or the cell-rosettes originating

together with them in the pollen-tubes, of which latter Schacht

possessed very elegant preparations.

There cannot be the slightest doubt that the pro-embryo of

the Abietinee may be observed as a simple cell impressed into

the lower concavity of the corpusculum; the first division of this

cell taking place, as in Juniperus, by a transverse wall. Very

often, the crosswise arranged longitudinal walls, which lay the

foundation of the construction of the pro-embryo out of four

longitudinal rows of cells, make their appearance only in the

lower of the two cells; or the upper and larger of the two is

divided only once by a longitudinal wall. These cases, frequent

in Pinus Strobus and canadensis, contradict Schacht’s view most

decidedly. Among the preparations which Schacht was good

enough to show me, I found one which exhibited a free cell-

rosette of four tough-walled cells in the upper concavity of a

corpusculum which had been halved by the section. In another

corpusculum of the same albumen, opened by the same cut, it

could be made out that the pro-embryo which had originated there

had already sent out embryonal tubes + of a line long.

Whoever has made investigations on the fertilization of the

Abietineze, knows how surprisingly simultaneous, in all ovules of

the same species, is the passage through the exceedingly rapid

course of the first stages of development of the pro-embryo. I

may mention by way of example, that at Leipsic, m the present

year (1854), not a pollen-tube had penetrated to a corpusculum

on the 22nd of June, while only three days later, on the 25th of

June, among several hundreds of impregnated corpuscula that

were examined, not one could be found which did not contain

at least one 4-celled pro-embryo. I regard it as quite impossible

_ that one corpuscu/um can outstrip its neighbour by some twelve

days, in one and the same albumen, in the development of the

embryo. I look upon that preparation of Schacht’s as an arti-

ficial product ; I believe that cell-rosette -- perhaps the end-cells

of the embryonal tubes of the neighbouring corpusculum—must

have been carried, in slicing, into the impregnated corpusculum.

Such occurrences readily happen in making sections of objects

held between the thumb and finger. I possess a preparation of

Pinus canadensis, in the opened, apparently otherwise undis-

turbed corpusculum of which, lies an epithelial cell from the skin

of the finger-tip. Other preparations of Schacht’s exhibited,

beside the introduced end of the pollen-tube, two cells, flattened

by mutual pressure, appressed against the upper concavity of the

corpusculum—germinal vesicles, such as I have already figured

in a similar condition in Pinus austriaca. Schacht has no ob-

440 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifere.

servations to speak directly in favour of his assertion that the

said cell-rosette is formed from the pollen-tube by “ tying-off”

(abschniirung).

My later researches, made principally upon Pinus canadensis,

have led me to the conclusion that the appearance of the first

cell of the pro-embryo in the bottom of the corpusculum is a

secondary condition. Many times, in corpuscula into or upon

which pollen-tubes had penetrated, I detected in the middle of

the corpusculum free, ovate cells, distinguished above their neigh-

bours—unimpregnated germinal vesicles—by size, and above

all by the extremely abundant granular mucilage they contained,

in the same way as is the case in the impregnated germinal

vesicles of Biotia and Juniperus. That these cells gradually

make their way to the bottom of the corpuscula is rendered still

more probable, since the undoubtedly unicellular forms of the

pro-embryo of Pinus canadensis are made to draw back far away

from the lower concavity of the corpusculum, by the application

of reagents contracting the primordial utricle; a certain proof

that they at first lie loose here. Hitherto I have not observed

these cells—in my opinion the impregnated germinal vesicles—

in immediate contact with the pollen-tube. In the cases where

they were nearest to it, they were always at a distance at least

equalling the longitudinal diameter of the cell. But it is never-

theless probable, that there is always direct contact m the im-

pregnation. This would explain the coincident observations of

Scheljesnow * and Cienkowski+, according to which, in Larix

europea (which I have not yet examined), a large cell hangs for

a long time to the pollen-tube which has penetrated the corpus-

culum. The fecundation seems to be effected more slowly here

than in the other Abietinez.

I have little to add to my former statements regarding the

cell-formation in the interior of the pollen-tube of the Abietinez.

During the impregnation I saw im its interior, with free starch,

spherical cells with granular mucilagmous contents, sometimes

combined in groups, and then eight in number. Not the least

sign can be observed of an opening of the pollen-tube. The

two modifications of its mode of penetration already mentioned

as occurring in the Cupressineze and Taxineze, are met with also

in the Abietineee. While it frequently advances only as far as

the upper concavity of the corpusculum, it still more frequently

projects a hemispherical end a little way in, and sometimes pene-

trates tolerably deeply. I possess a preparation of Pinus cana-

densis in which it fills up a full third of the corpusculum.

* Bulletin de Moscou, 1849, p. 466.

7 Ibid. 1853, p. 337. t. 7. fig. 13.

Royal Society. 44]

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

June 15, 1854.—The Earl of Rosse, President, in the Chair.

“ On the Structure of certain Microscopic 'Test-objects, and their

Action on the Transmitted Rays of Light.” By Charles Brooke,

M.A., F.R.S.

In order to arrive at any satisfactory conclusions regarding the

action of any transparent medium on light, it is necessary to form

some definite conceptions regarding the external form and in-

ternal structure of the medium. ‘This observation appears to apply

in full force to microscopic test-objects ; and for the purposes of the

present inquiry it will suffice to limit our observations to the struc-

ture of two well-known test-objects, the scales of Podura plumbea,

and the siliceous loric or valves of the genus Pleurosigma, freed

from organic matter: the former of these is commonly adopted as

the test of the defining power of an achromatic object-glass, and the

several species of the latter as the tests of the penetrating or sepa-

rating power as it has been termed. ‘The defining power depends

only on the due correction of chromatic and spherical aberrations, so

that the image of any point of an object formed on the retina may

not overlap and confuse the images of adjacent points; this correc-

tion is never theoretically perfect, since there will always be residual

terms in the general expression for the aberration, whatever prac-

ticable number of surfaces we may introduce as arbitrary constants ;

but it is practically perfect, when the residual error is a quantity

less than that which the eye can appreciate. The separation of the

markings of the Pleurosigmata and other analogous objects, is found

to depend on good defining power associated with large angle of

aperture.

The Podura scale appears to be a compound structure, consisting

of a very delicate transparent lamina or membrane, covered with an

imbricated arrangement of epithelial plates, the length of which is

six or eight times their breadth, somewhat resembling the tiles on a

roof, or the long pile of some kinds of plush. ‘This structure may

be readily shown by putting a live Podura into a small test-tube,

and inverting it on a glass slide; the insect should then be allowed

for some time to leap and run about in the confined space. By this

means the scales will be freely deposited on the glass, and being

subsequently trodden on by the insect, several will be found, from

which the epithelial plates have been partially rubbed off, and at the

margin of the undisturbed portion, the form and position of the

plates may be readily recognized. ‘This structure appears to be ren-

dered most evident by mounting the scales thus obtained in Canada

balsam, and illuminating them by means of Wenham’s parabolic re-

flector. ‘he structure may also be very clearly recognized when

the scale is seen as an opake object under a Ross’s ;4,th (specially

adjusted for uncovered objects), illuminated by a combination of the

4A2 Royal Society.

parabola and a flat Lieberkuhn, as the writer has elsewhere de-

scribed*. The underside of the scale thus appears as a smooth

glistening surface with very slight markings, corresponding probably

to the points of insertion of the plates on the contrary side. The

minuteness and close proximity of the epithelial plates will readily

account for their being a good test of definition, while their promi-

nence renders them independent of the separating power due to large

angle of aperture.

The structure of the second class of test-objects above mentioned

differs entirely from that above described ; it will suffice for the pre-

sent purpose to notice the valves of three species only of the genus

Pleurosigma, which, as arranged in the order of easy visibility, are,

P. formosum, P. hippocampus, P. angulatum.

These appear to consist of a lamina of homogeneous transparent

silex, studded with rounded knobs or protuberances, which, in

P. formosum and P. angulatum, are arranged like a tier of round shot

in a triangular pile, and in hippocampus, like a similar tier in a qua-

drangular pile, as has frequently been described ; and the visibility of

these projections is probably proportional to their convexity. ‘The

‘‘ dots” have by some been supposed to be depressions; this how-

ever is clearly not the case, as fracture is invariably observed to take

place between the rows of dots, and not through them, as would na-

turally occur if the dots were depressions, and consequently the sub-

stance thinner there than elsewhere.

This in fact is always observed to take place in the siliceous loricee

of some of the border tribes that occupy a sort of neutral, and not

yet undisputed, ground between the confines of the animal and vege-

table kingdoms; as for example the Jsthmia, which possesses a reti-

culated structure, with depressions between the meshes, somewhat

analogous to that which would result from pasting together bobbin-

net and tissue paper.

The valves of P. angulatum and other similar objects have been

by some writers} supposed to be made up of two substances pos-

sessing different degrees of refractive power; but this hypothesis is

purely gratuitous, since the observed phenomena will naturally re-

sult from a series of rounded or lenticular protuberances of one

homogeneous substance. Moreover, if the centres of the markings

were centres of greatest density, if in fact the structure were at all

analogous to that of the crystalline lens, it is difficult to conceive

why the oblique rays only should be visibly affected. When P. hip-

pocampus or P. formoswm is illuminated by a Gillett’s condenser, with

a central stop placed under the lenses, and viewed by a quarter-inch

object-glass of 70° aperture, both being accurately adjusted, we may

observe in succession, as the object-glass approaches the object, first

a series of well-defined bright dots; secondly, a series of dark dots

replacing these; and thirdly, the latter are again replaced by bright

dots, not however as well defined as the first series. A similar suc-

* See British Association Reports for 1850.

+ Vide Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, No. V. pp. 9, 10.

Royal Society. 443

cession of bright, dark, and bright points may be observed in the

centre of the markings of some species of Coscinodiscus from Ber-

muda.

These appearances would result if a thin plate of glass were studded

with minute, equal and equidistant plano-convex lenses, the foci of

which would necessarily lie in the same plane. If the focal surface

or plane of vision of the object-glass be made to coincide with this

plane, a series of bright points would result from the accumulation

of the light falling on each lens. If the plane of vision be next made

to coincide with the surfaces of the lenses, these points would ap-

pear dark, in consequence of the rays being refracted towards points

now out of focus. Lastly, if the plane of vision be made to coincide

with the plane beneath the lenses that contains their several foci, so

that each lens may be, as it were, combined with the object-glass,

then a second series of bright points will result from the accumula-

tion of the rays transmitted at those points. Moreover, as all rays

capable of entering the object-glass are concerned in the formation

of the second series of bright focal points, whereas the first series

are formed by the rays of a conical shell of light only, it is evident

that the circle of least confusion must be much less, and therefore

the bright points better defined, in the first than in the last series.

If the supposed lenses were of small convexity, it is evident that

the course of the more oblique rays only would be sensibly in-

fluenced ; hence probably the structure of P. angulatum is recognized

only by object-glasses of large angular apertures, which are capable

of admitting very oblique rays.

The writer has recently, in an address to the members of the

Royal Institution, proposed to explain the extreme darkness of the

dots, under certain conditions of focus and illumination, by the hy-

pothesis that some of the oblique rays are thrown out of the field by

internal reflexion, being incident at the upper surface at an angle

too large for emergence; but this does not appear to invalidate the

present hypothesis respecting the course of the transmitted rays.

it does not appear to be desirable that objects should be illumi-

nated by an entire, or, as it may be termed, a solid cone of light of

much larger angle than that of the object-glass. The extinction of an

object by excess of Ulumination may be well illustrated by viewing

with a one-inch object-glass the /sthmia illuminated by Gillett’s

condenser. When this is in focus, and its full aperture open, the

markings above described are wholly invisible ; but as the aperture

is successively diminished by the revolving diaphragm, the object be-

comes more and more distinct, and is perfectly defined when the

aperture of the illuminating pencil is reduced to about 20°. The

same point may be attained, although with much sacrifice of defini-

tion,! by gradually depressing the condenser, so that the rays may

diverge before they reach the object ; and it may be remarked gene-

rally that the definition of objects is always most perfect, when an

illuminating pencil of suitable form is accurately adjusted to focus,

that is, so that the source of light and the plane of vision may be

conjugate foci of the illuminator. If an object-glass of 120° aper-

ddd. Zoological Society.

ture or upwards be used as an illuminator, the markings of Diato-

macez will be scarcely distinguishable, with any object-glass; the

glare of the central rays overpowering the effects of structure on

those that are more oblique.

« On the Structure and Functions of the Rostellum in Listera

ovata.” By J. D. Hooker, M.D., F.R.S.

The author first gives an account of the form and structure of the

rostellum of Listera ovata, and its relation and position to the anther

and stigma. He finds that the rostellum is divided by parallel septa

(at right angles to the plane of that organ) into a series of longitu-

dinally elongated loculi, which gradually taper from the base up-

wards, and terminate at two opake cellular spots, one on each side

of the apex of the rostellum, towards which latter the loculi also

converge. When the flower is fully expanded, these loculi are dis-

tended with a viscid grumous fluid, full of chlorophyll granules.

Their external walls, and the septa dividing them, are formed of a

delicate, transparent tissue, which is cellular at the base and apex of

the rostellum only.

Their grumous contents, when examined at the earliest period of

development, present the appearance of opake club-shaped com-

pressed bodies, with areolated surfaces ; a form and appearance that

may be restored at a later period by coagulating with alcohol.

At the period of impregnation the slightest irritation of the ros-

tellum causes the sudden and forcible discharge of the contents of

these loculi (through the rupture of the cellular tissue at the apex

of the rostellum) and its protrusion in the form of two viscid glands,

which coalesce into one, after which the rostellum rapidly collapses

and contracts.

The pollen-masses, when freed from the anther-case, fall naturally

upon the rostellum ; they are retained there by their viscid gland-like

contents, and, breaking up, the pollen-grains become (by the con-

traction of the rostellum) applied to the subjacent stigmatic surface.

The author adds remarks on the structure of the rostellum in

allied genera of Orchidez, and indicates some of the more important

morphological changes to which that organ is subjected, in connec-

tion with the development of various appendages to the column and

pollen in the same natural family.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 23, 1852.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

1. Nore on THE Gouwa (Bos FRONTALIS) OF WESTERN INDIA,

CALLED “THE Bison”? By ENGLISH RESIDENTS.

By Capr. J. WycLirre THOMPSON.

Eliot Vale, Blackheath, Kent,

20th Noy. 1852,

Tue size of the beast I cannot state with any exactness, having had

no means of judging bevond forming an estimate by the eye of the

Zoological Society. 445

carcase as it lay on the ground before me. The common report

amongst Indian sportsmen is, that the old bull stands 19 hands

(6 feet 4 inches) at the shoulder. Upon what grounds this estimate

rests I cannot say, but it is in some degree confirmed by my own

impression, that an old bull was pretty nearly equal in height and

bulk to one of the very largest of the London dray-horses. The

colour is chocolate-brown, deepening in shade on the belly; the

lower part of the leg is of a dirty yellow-brownish white from the

foot upwards to a little above the knee in the fore and the hock in

the hind leg, the line of demarcation between the white and the

chocolate being abrupt, as in a ‘ white-stockinged’ horse. The pro-

file of the face is decidedly curved, the part of the forehead between

the horns is excessively raised in a kind of ridge, of which traces are

to be seen in the skulls, though in these it is much less strongly

marked than iu the live animal. The shoulder is raised, not ina

hump like that of the Brahminee bull or common Indian ox, but in

a kind of ridge, giving the idea that the spine, beginning at the

shoulder, had been unnaturally raised, and carried at that elevation

some way to the rear, and then allowed suddenly to drop into the

ordinary level of the back. The forehead, including the high ridge

between the horns, inclines to ash-colour ; the tail is small and short.

The only part of the country in which I have met with these

animals is on the “ Suhyadri”’ mountains or “ Western Ghauts,” a

narrow belt of wild, broken, and thickly-wooded country dividing the

high lands of the Deccan or Maratha country from the low land of

the Concan or country bordering the margin of the sea. This Ghaut

country is of most peculiar appearance: anything that can be called

a plain does not exist in it; it is a succession of the most rugged

hills and of the most wild, deep ravines ; the whole, with the excep-

tion of here and there a bare ridge of hill, covered with a dense mass

of bushes, brushwood, tall ferns and flowering plants, so thick that

it is frequently necessary to clear a road with bill-hooks ; imbedded

in this mass of vegetation lie broken crags of brown rock ; above all

this rise clumps of forest trees, and above these again rises some

rugged hill-side crowned by a bare perpendicular scarp of black rock.

This line of country, which in every part that I have visited forms

a line of demarcation between the Concan and the Deccan, and con-

sequently stretches in point of length over a wide extent, is in point

of breadth inconsiderable, occupying no larger space than must ne-

cessarily be covered by a mountain range with broken and irregular

spurs. As you will perceive from my description, it is a country

which one would scarcely think adapted to huge cattle like the Bison,

but they do inhabit it, and hold to it most rigorously, as I never saw

or heard of one either in the Concan or the Deccan. Occasionally they

make their appearance on the borders of this country, and do great

damage to the small fields of corn which the natives cultivate on the

very verge of the forest ; choosing, as I gather from the natives, the

night for their operations ; but their usual abode is in the depths

of the Ghaut country, as not only are they invariably, when sought

for by sportsmen, found in the very depth of the thick forest, but

446 Zoological Society.

constant traces of them may there be met with; as for instance,

crossing a little open glade in the forest, covered, as is sometimes the

case, with nothing but a long thin dry grass, it is not unusual to see

half a dozen patches where the squashed and flattened grass shows

where the Bison has been sleeping ; and the natives frequently point

out a bed of a greener and more delicate kind of grass, and show

where it has been cropped by the grazing Bison.

The usual method of hunting these beasts is to take up a post

commanding some narrow pass, and throwing from fifty to a hundred

beaters into the forest, to form them into a cordon, which driving

the Bison before it, contracts as it approaches the pass and forces

them through it under the fire of the hunters. The Bison, when

stirred but not as yet much alarmed by the distant line of beaters,

are usually seen plodding along with a slow heavy gait, and with

their heads carried low. When under these circumstances I have

been able to obtain a clear view of them, they have struck me by a

resemblance in general figure to the North American Bison, of which

I have seen specimens in England: they have a heavy, compact,

short-necked, thick-headed look, which distinguishes them most

strongly from the long-faced dolorous-visaged tame buffalo of India.

When disturbed by the closer approach of the beaters, they break

into a heavy lumbering trot, which under circumstances of violent

alarm, they exchange for a furious rush, in which they go straight

through the jungle as a horse might burst through standing corn,

making the forest ring again with the sound of crashing boughs ;

and, as they cleave their way through the dense masses of bush,

making their progress visible by a long track of waving branches

tossing above them, like the wake of a ship at sea. I have been

posted on the ridge of a hill so far away from the Bison that they

looked, when I caught occasional glimpses of them, no bigger than

terrier dogs, and yet have heard the incessant crashing of the jungle

quite loud as the game moved to and fro.

They have a great reputation for ferocity amongst both the English

sportsmen and the native hunters; and this reputation is m some

degree borne out by the fact, that within no very great number of

years, and within a limited extent of country, two English officers

have been killed by them. Nevertheless, although I do not at all

doubt that they can be on occasion savage and dangerous, I can say

from experience that their ferocity is much exaggerated. I haye

seen a good many Bison, but never yet saw one that did not show a

strong desire to avoid me if it possibly could. That when wounded

or finding their line of retreat blocked up, they will charge, there is no

kind of doubt ; but excepting these extreme cases, they will usually,

on catching sight of a man, give a start with a little back-jump, much

as an antelope does when catching sight of a startling object, and

then plunging into the thickest forest, hold their course in the direc-

tion which will carry them the farthest and soonest out of the neigh-

bourhood of human beings.

They usually go in small herds of four or five, though I have I

think seen as many as seven or eight together. Though, from its

Zoological Society. 447

great size, the Bison is not a difficult animal to hit, it is by no means

an easy animal to bring down. One shot, accurately placed behind

the shoulder, will bring him down never to rise again ; but you might

as well fire into a hay-stack as hit him anywhere else. And even

when brought down and brought to the last gasp by a well-directed

shot, the tenacity with which he holds on to the small remains of

life is wonderful. I have fired at a fallen Bison with the muzzle of

the gun within a foot of his head, and yet he kicked, and before

dying rolled himself quite over; I remember once putting my gun

so close to the back of the head, just behind the horns, that the hair

smoked from the flash of the powder, and still the animal breathed

for some time.

The natives, though they hold the ferocity of the Bison in con-

sideralbe respect, yet do not seem to consider him an animal of very

acute perception. I remember a “shikarry”’ or native huntsman

pointing out to me a patch of long thin grass lying close by the side

of asmall path across a hill top, and affording nothing that I should

-have considered very good concealment, and telling me that I might

safely on emergency lie down in it and let the Bison pass along the

path. I forget whether it was at this very spot, or at one precisely

like it, that one of my beaters put this stratagem into practice and

allowed the animal to pass close beside him.

The flesh is I think the finest beef I ever tasted. The natives of

** Caste,’ holding the Bison in reverence as a species of Cow, refuse

to eat him, and even in some cases refuse to show him to the hunter,

though their reluctance to this last may generally be overcome b

money. The out-caste tribes, those whom people in England call

**Pariahs,”’ have no such scruples, and the instant that a Bison is

killed light a fire by the carcase and sit down and gorge themselves.

When I was in India I tried to get one or more Bison Calves for

the Zoological Society, and offered the natives what to them were

large sums of money if they would bring me one. They never suc-

ceeded ; partly from the real difficulty of the undertaking, still more

I fancy from the unwillingness of the Hindoo to do anything unusual

or contrary to ‘‘ custom ;” they reflected, I do not doubt, that their

fathers had never been requested to catch a Bison calf, and could not

comprehend why ¢hey should. I myself twice surrounded a calf with

a circle of beaters, but in both instances it broke the line and escaped.

Calves sometimes fall into the hands of the natives by accident, and

I have seen a young one so caught, which unfortunately died in the

possession of an English officer, who had bought it from its captors.

All the natives with whom I have spoken on the subject are firmly

persuaded that there are two distinct species of Bison. To these two

species they give the name of “ Gouwa”’ in common, but distinguish

them, as the ‘ Myse Gouwa”’ and the “‘Gaee Gouwa.” ‘ Myse”

signifies the common domestic buffalo; ‘‘Gaee”’ the domestic cow.

I never succeeded in getting any man to give me a clear explanation

of what he imagined to be the difference, but I have found the belief

so universally spread amongst those natives who have the best oppor-

tunities of knowing, that I do not think it altogether to be dis-

credited.

448 Zoological Society.

December 14, 1852.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair,

Norrs on tHe ANATOMY OF THE TREE-KANGAROO

(DENDROLAGUS INUSTUS, GOULD).

By Prorrssor Owen, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., ETc.

The specimen of the above rare species, the first that had been

exhibited alive in Europe, was a full-grown and somewhat aged.

female, having lived in the Society’s Menagerie since the 8th of Oc-

tober, 1848. It had suffered from a disease in the tail, for which

more than half of that organ had been amputated, and the stump

was well-healed. Iam not aware what symptoms preceded the ani-

mal’s death, which took place on the 13th of October, 1852; the

dissection did not bring to light any well-marked morbid appear-

ances.

The external characters of the animal have been so well described

and illustrated by the learned Dutch naturalists, MM. Muller and

Schlegel, that further remarks on them may be here dispensed with :

the chief modifications of the Kangaroo-form which adapt the herbi-

vorous marsupials of the present subgenus to their singular sphere of

existence, are a reduction of the length of the hind-limbs to a more

near equality with the fore-limbs, which are proportionally longer

and stronger than in the land Kangaroos: the claws of the principal

toes in both limbs are longer, stronger, and more curved than in

other Macropodide ; they are, in fact, the chief instruments enabling

the Tree-Kangaroos to maintain a firm hold on the branches of the

trees in which they habitually reside.

As the bones of the animal dissected are still in maceration, any

remarks that the osteology of the Dendrolagus may require, will be

communicated at a future meeting.

Before commencing the dissection the weight of the animal was

taken, which was 16 lbs. avoirdupois.

The length of the animal, from the muzzle to the end of the tail,

was 2 feet 1 inch; the length of the head was 4 inches 9 lines; the

length of the fore-limb, from the head of the humerus, was 12 inches ;

that of the hind-limb, from the head of the femur, 1 foot 6 inches.

The dental formula was :—2 =, c = p _ m == 30. The

canines, confined as above indicated, to the upper jaw, were much

smaller than in the Potoroos, indicative of a closer affinity to the

Kangaroo family, which affinity was further manifested by the form

and structure of the stomach. The premolars presented the great

antero-posterior extent characteristic of the subgenus Dendrolagus :

they are trenchant, with many minute vertical grooves; they play

upon each other like the blades of scissors, and must perform an im-

portant part in cutting off the leaves or fruit, or dividing after they

are detached, the natural objects of food of the Tree- Kangaroos: the

true molars are double-ridged transversely, as in the Macropodide

generally.

The tongue is long, narrow, depressed, with a smooth and even

dorsum, showing three fossulate papillee at its base, arranged in a

triangle with the base turned forwards: the Macropus major has a

Zoological Society. 449

single fossulate papilla near the base of the tongue. The epiglottis

is broad and large, slightly emarginate at its middle part.

The cesophagus is suspended to the bodies of the dorsal vertebree

by a broad fold of the pleural membranes: it is continued into the

abdomen for about 3 inches before terminating in the stomach. The

diameter of the tube in a state of contraction is only 3 lines, until

within an inch of its termination, when it begins gradually to expand.

A series of well-marked fasciculi of muscular fibres come off from

an oblique tract of the external surface of the termination of the ceso-

phagus and diverge in oblique curves which partly surround that

termination before the fasciculi spread upon the stomach itself. The

cesophagus terminates 4 inches from the cardiac end of this bag,

which is formed by one of the pouches of the sacculated part of the

stomach, the sacculated structure being continued through five-sixths

of the extent of the organ.

The length of the stomach, measured along the greater curvature

when fully distended, is 3 feet 8 inches; the circumference at the

middle of the sacculated part is 11 inches. The sacculi are formed

chiefly by two longitudinal bands, one along the front, the other along

the back part of the stomach, and by a third of narrower extent

along the greater curvature, from which the epiploon is continued.

The principal sacculi are about fifteen in number ; the terminal part

of the organ, which has the form of a simple digestive stomach, mea-

sures about 6 inches along the greater curvature. The circumference

of the pylorus is 2 inches 9 lmes. The duodenum expands at its

commencement. ‘The epithelium is continued from the cesophagus

for a breadth of 2 inches down the posterior surface of the stomach,

and of 14 inch down the anterior surface, and thence is continued

slightly diminishing in breadth 3 inches towards the pyloric end of

the stomach, and 23 inches towards the cardiac end. ‘The rest of the

cavity is lined with the usual gastric vascular membrane, the surface

of which is diversified by patches of follicular apertures along the

upper curvature of the stomach, which patches increase in breadth

as they approach the true digestive portion. At the cardiac orifice

two parallel longitudinal ridges extend along the lesser curvature to

the pyloric end of the stomach, 23 lines in breadth and 7 Imes apart,

forming a channel of that width leading from the cardiac towards the

pyloric orifice ; both the muscular and the mucous coats of the sto-

mach increase in thickness towards the pylorus, which is defended by

an oblique ridge.

In the great Kangaroo the cardiac end of the sacculated stomach is

bifid, and the epithelium lines one of the culs-de-sac : in the rock Kan-

garoo (Macr. penicillatus) the cardiac end terminates, as in the Tree-

Kangaroo, in a single cul-de-sac. In the Hypsiprymni the whole of

the sacculated structure of the stomach is on the left side of the ter-

mination of the cesophagus, whereas in the Dendrolagus, as in the

true Kangaroos, the major part of that structure is to the right of

the cardiac orifice.

The intestines were 9 feet in length, the small intestines being

6 feet, the large 3 feet.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 29

450 Zoological Society.

The circumference of the ceecum is 5 inches, the length the same.

It is simple, and terminates obtusely without diminishing in diameter.

The ileo-czecal aperture is in the form of a narrow transverse slit,

4 lines in extent, with a tumid margin opening upon a fold, which

partially denotes the boundary between the ceecum and colon. There

is a patch of agminated glands at the beginning of the colon, and

smaller patches in other parts of that intestine.

The parotid gland is of large size, and extends far down upon the

neck.

The liver is relatively small, and was situated in the right hypo-

chondrium : it consists of a right and left lobe, the former subdivided

and the latter giving off the Spigelian lobe. The large gall-bladder

was loosely suspended in a deep cleft of the right lobe. The coats

of the ductus choledochus are thickened before the termination of the

duct, in common with that of the pancreas, in the duodenum. The

spleen, as in the Great Kangaroo, is T-shaped.

The heart showed the usual marsupial structure in the presence of

the two distinct superior venee cavee, and the absence of the ‘ fossa’

and ‘annulus ovalis.’ Both right and left lungs were cleft at their

anterior margin, and a large azygos lobe was developed from the

former, and occupied the part of the posterior mediastinum between

the pericardium and diaphragm.

The larynx agreed in structure with that of the Great Kangaroo:

the glottis being widely open, and the chordz vocales very short and

rudimentary at the fore part of the ‘ rima.’

The kidneys presented the usual simple conglobate structure. The

ureters passing through the vaginal loops terminate close together

14 lines from the communication of the urethra, or neck of the blad-

der, with the uro-genital canal,

The ovaria, about 8 lines by 4 lines in size, presented a wrinkled

cerebriform surface. A cyst of near an inch in diameter was deve-

loped from the left ovary. The oviduets, about 13 inch in length,

terminate each in a subcompressed elongated uterus 1 inch by

3 lines. Each uterus opens by a distinct os tince into the fundus

of a vagina, with a median cul-de-sac, extending 1 inch 3 lines be-

yond the commencement of the lateral bent vaginal canals. These

canals are about 3 inches in length: they presented a finely longitu-

dinally plicated imner surface, with a semilunar valvular fold 5 lines

before their termination in the uro-genital canal: the length of this

canal is 2 inches: it then opens, with the rectum, into a short and

wide common cloacal vestibule, closed by a strong sphincter muscle.

The lateral bent vaginal canals are shorter in proportion than in the

Macropus major: but the median vaginal cul-de-sac was closed, as

in that species.

In a specimen of the Macropus Bennettii which I dissected in 1845,

I detected a natural aperture of communication between the median

cul-de-sac and the urogenital canal. I had the pleasure of showing the

specimen to Dr. Poelman, during a recent visit of that eminent Com-

parative Anatomist to the Hunterian Museum, and of thus confirming

the observation which he had, independently, made of a similar mo-

Zoological Society. 451

dification of the female generative organs in a specimen of the Ma-

cropus Bennetti dissected by him at the University of Gand *.

The brain of the Dendrolagus inustus weighed 6 drachms.

The cerebral lobes were smooth, and showed only a short linear

indentation above the anterior part of each. There was no trace of

supra-ventricular commissure (corpus callosum), and in all particu-

lars save the more simple external surface the structure of the brain

corresponded with that of the Great Kangaroo as described in the

‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1837. The proportion of the

weight of the brain to that of the body is as 1 to 230; in the Ma-

cropus major it is as 1 to 800, the comparison being made on the

body of a large old male. The difference between the large and

small species of Kangaroo depends on the brain not increasing in

proportion to the increase in the bulk of the entire animal. The

smaller species in any natural family of Mammalia, resemble the

foetus of the larger species in the greater proportional size of both

the brain and the eyes.

On THE MONKEYS OF THE AMAZON.

By Aurrep R. WALLACE.

The great valley of the Amazon is rich in species of Monkeys, and

during my residence there I had many opportunities of becoming

acquainted with their habits and distribution. The few observations

I have to make will apply principally to the latter particular. I have

myself seen twenty-one species; seven with prehensile and fourteen

with non-prehensile tails, as shown in the following list :—

3 Howlers, viz.—Mycetes ursinus, M. caraya? and M. Beelzebub ;

1 Spider Monkey,— Ateles paniscus ;

1 Big-bellied Monkey (Barrigudo of the Brazilians) ,—Lagothriz Hum-

boldtit ;

2 Sapajou,—Cebus gracilis (Spix) and C. apella? ;

4 Short-tailed Monkeys,—Brachyurus couxiu, B. ouakari (Spix),

B. rubicundus (? Calvus, B. M.), and a new species ;

2 Sloth Monkeys,—Pithecia irrorata and an undescribed species;

3 Squirrel Monkeys,—Callithria sciureus, C. personatus and C. tor-

quatus ;

2 Nocturnal Monkeys,—Nyctipithecus trivirgatus and N. felinus ;

and

3 Marmoset Monkeys,—Jacchus bicolor, J. tamarin and a new spe-

cies.

The Howling Monkeys are generally abundant; the different spe-

cies, however, are found in separate localities; Mycetes Beelzebub

being apparently confined to the Lower Amazon, in the vicinity of

Para; a black species, M. caraya?, to the Upper Amazon; anda red

species, M. ursinus, to the Rio Negro and Upper Amazon. Much

confusion seems to exist with regard to the species of Howlers, owing

to the difference of colour in the sexes of some species. The red and

* Bulletin de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, tom. xviii. p. 599.

29%

A52 Zoological Society.

the black species of the Amazon, however, are of the same colour in

both sexes. The species of this genus,are semimocturnal im their

habits, uttering their cries late in the evening and before sunrise, and

also on the approach of rain. Humboldt observes, that the tremen-

dous noise they make can only be accounted for by the great num-

bers of individuals that unite im its production. My own observa-

tions, and the unanimous testimony of the Indians, prove this not to

be the case. One individual only makes the howling, which is cer-

tainly of a remarkable depth and volume and curiously modulated ;

but on closely remarking the suddenness with which it ceases and

again commences, it is evident that it is produced by one animal,

which is generally a full-grown male. On dissecting the throat, much

of our wonder at the noise ceases ; for besides the bony vessel formed

by the expanded “os hyoides,” there is a strong muscular apparatus

which seems to act as a bellows in forcing a body of air through the

reverberating bony cavity.

Of the genus A¢eles, the four-fingered Spider Monkeys, one species

is found only in the Guiana district, north of the Amazon and Rio

Negro. Another, probably Ateles ater, inhabits the West Brazil

district on the river Purus. ‘These monkeys are slow in their mo-

tions, but make great use of their prehensile tail, by which they

swing themselves from bough to bough; and I have been informed

that two have been seen to join together by their hands and prehen-

sile tails, to form a bridge for their young ones to pass over. The

Indians also say, that this animal generally moves suspended beneath

the boughs, not walking on them.

The next genus, Lagothrix, is a very interesting one, being quite

unknown in Guiana and Eastern Brazil. The species I am acquainted

with (LZ. Humboldtii) is found in the district south-west of the Rio

Negro, towards the Andes, which I eall the Ecuador district of the

Amazon. ‘They are remarkable for their thick woolly grey fur, their

long prehensile tails, and very mild disposition. In the upper Ama-

zon they are the species most frequently seen tame, and are great

favourites, from their grave countenances, more resembling the human

face than those of any other Monkeys, their quiet manners, and the

great affection and docility they exhibit. I had three of them for

several months before leaving Brazil, and they were on board with

me at the time the ship was burnt, when, with their companions, they

all perished.

The Sapajou Monkeys, forming the genus Cebus, appear to be

more generally distributed, and the species have a wider range.

They are also frequently domesticated, but offer a remarkable con-

trast to the species of the last genus, in their constant activity and

restlessness, and they have the character of beimg the most mis-

chievous monkeys in the country.

Each species of the genus Brachyurus appears to be confined to a

particular district. The B. couwiu is a native of Guiana, and does

not pass the Rio Negro on the west, or the Amazon on the south.

The B. ouakari is found on the Upper Rio Negro; the B. rubi-

cundus on the Upper Amazon, called the Solimoes; and another

Zoological Society. 453

species, apparently undescribed, is found on the lower part of the

same river.

The Sloth Monkeys, forming the genus Pithecia, have an exten-

sive range as regards the genus, but the separate species seem each

confined in a limited space. Of the two species inhabiting the

Amazon district, one, the P. irrorata, is found on the south bank of

the Upper Amazon; and another, apparently undescribed and ren-

dered remarkable by a bright red beard round the face and under

the chin, occurs only to the south-west of the Rio Negro.

Of the little Squirrel Monkeys, one, the Callithrix sciureus, a spe-

cimen of which is now in the Society’s Gardens, has an extensive

range, being found on both banks of the Amazon and Rio Negro.

The C. torquatus, a white-collared species, is found only on the

Upper Rio Negro, and the C. personatus on the Upper Amazon.

Of the curious Nocturnal Monkeys forming the genus Nyctipithe-

cus there are two species in this district; one, which appears to be

the NV. trivirgatus of Humboldt, is found in the district of Keuador,

west of the Upper Rio Negro; the other, closely allied, probably the

N. felinus, on the Upper Amazon. Their large eyes, cat-like faces,

soft woolly hair and nocturnal habits render them a very interesting

group. They are called “devil monkeys” by the Indians, and are

said to sleep during the day and to roam about only at night. I

have had specimens of them alive, but they are very delicate and

soon die.

Of the Marmozet Monkeys there are three species, though none

of them have the characteristic tufts of hair on the head. Hach

species seems to be confined to a very limited tract of country. The

Jacchus tamarin is found only in the district of Para, where it is

abundant. The J. bicolor, a pretty grey and white species, I have

only seen on the Guiana side of the Rio Negro near the city of Barra.

Another species entirely black, with the face of bare white skin,

inhabits the district of the Upper Rio Negro. It appears to he

uite new.

The last three genera appear to be to a great extent insectivorous,

and I am inclined to think they also devour small birds and mam-

malia. At least those I have had alive would attempt to pull into

their cages any of my small birds which passed near. The little

black Jacchus last mentioned was particularly savage. He once

seized a large parrot by the neck, pulled him into his cage, and bit

out a large piece from his bill, and would probably have destroyed

it, had I not opportunely come to the rescue. ‘Two other smail

birds which approached too near his cage he seized and completely

devoured.

I will now make a few remarks on the geographical distribution of

these animals.

In the various works on natural history and in our museums, we

have generally but the vaguest statements of locality. S. America,

Brazil, Guiana, Peru, are among the most common; and if we have

“River Amazon”’ or ‘ Quito”’ attached to a specimen, we may

think ourselves fortunate to get anything so definite: though both

454: Zoological Society.

are on the boundary of two distinct zoological districts, and we have

nothing to tell us whether the one came from the north or south of

the Amazon, or the other from the east or the west of the Andes.

Owing to this uncertainty of locality, and the additional confusion

created by mistaking allied species from distant countries, there is

scarcely an animal whose exact geographical limits we can mark out

on the map.

On this accurate determination of an animal’s range many interest-

ing questions depend. Are very closely allied species ever separated

by a wide interval of country? What physical features determine

the boundaries of species and of genera? Do the.isothermal lines

ever accurately bound the range of species, or are they altogether

independent of them? What are the circumstances which render

certain rivers and certain mountain ranges the limits of numerous

species, while others are not? None of these questions can be satis-

factorily answered till we have the range of numerous species accu-

rately determined.

During my residence in the Amazon district I took every oppor-

tunity of determining the limits of species, and I soon found that

the Amazon, the Rio Negro and the Madeira formed the limits be-

yond which certain species never passed. The native hunters are

perfectly acquainted with this fact, and always cross over the river

when they want to procure particular animals, which are found even

on the river’s bank on one side, but never by any chance on the

other. On approaching the sources of the rivers they cease to bea

boundary, and most of the species are found on both sides of them.

Thus several Guiana species come up to the Rio Negro and Amazon.

but do not pass them ; Brazilian species on the contrary reach but

do not pass the Amazon to the north. Several Ecuador species

from the east of the Andes reach down into the tongue of land be-

tween the Rio Negro and Upper Amazon, but pass neither of those

rivers, and others from Peru are bounded on the north by the Upper

Amazon, and on the east by the Madeira. Thus there are four

districts, the Guiana, the Ecuador, the Peru and the Brazil districts,

whose boundaries on one side are determined by the rivers I have

mentioned.

In going up the Rio Negro the difference in the two sides of the

river is very remarkable.

In the lower part of the river you will find on the north the Jae-

chus bicolor and the Brachyurus Cou«iu, and on the south the red-

whiskered Pithecia. Higher up you will find on the north the

Ateles paniscus, and on the south the new black Jacchus and the

Lagotirix Humboldti.

Spix, in his work on the monkeys of Brazil, requently gives,

“banks of the river Amazon” as a locality, not being aware appa-

rently that the species found on one side very often do not occur on

the other, though the fact is generally known to the natives. In

these observations I have only referred to the monkeys, but the same

phenomena occur both with birds and insects, as I have observed

in many instances.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 455

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

November 9th, 1854.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read, viz. :—

1. “On the Associations of Colour, and Relations of Colour and

Form in Plants,” by G. Dickie, M.D., Professor of Natural History,

Queen’s College, Belfast.

This paper will be found in the present Number of the Annals and

in the Society’s Transactions.

2. “Record of New Localities for Plants,” by Dr. Balfour.

Sinapis nigra. Dysart, Mr. Clay.

Cuscuta Trifolii. Gleghorny, North Berwick, Dr. Balfour.

Anagallis arvensis. Near Luighi House, North Berwick, Miss

J. Arnot.

Atriplex laciniata. Near Drem, Mr. D. P. Maclagan.

Orchis pyramidalis. Leven Sands, Mr. G. 8. Lawson.

Eriophorum latifolium. Crichton Bog, near Edinburgh, Mr. D.

P. Maclagan.

Carex incurva. Near Longniddry, Mr. Clay.

Brachypodium pinnatum. Pathhead, near Edinburgh, Mr. D. P.

Maclagan.

Elymus arenarius. Leven and Largo Links, Mr. G. 8. Lawson-

Triticum lacum. North Berwick, Dr. Balfour.

Chordaria divaricata. On Zostera marina in Belfast Lough, Dr.

Dickie.

Woodsia ilvensis. Near Windermere, Westmoreland, Dr. Clowes.

Polystichum Lonchitis. Helvellyn, Dr. Clowes.

Asplenium germanicum. Near Windermere, Mr. Hawker.

Lycopodium annotinum. Near Windermere, Dr. Clowes.

Specimens of many of the above were exhibited.

3. “Remarks on the Formation of Ascidia,” by Dr. Balfour. The

author stated that he was induced to make some remarks on the

formation of ascidia by seeing lately a statement to the effect that

all pitchers were formed by a hollowing-out process. He was disposed

to think that ¢rwe ascidia, such as those of Nepenthes, Sarracenia,

Cephalotus, and Heliamphora, were formed by folded leaves in the

same way as carpels are supposed to be produced. The anomalous

ascidiform production in the leaves of cabbage, lettuce, &e. might be

traced to a similar process, and in some instances the pitcher-like

body appeared to be a second leaf folded in an opposite manner from

that from which it sprung. Occasionally two or more leaves combined

to form ascidid. What has been called the “ hollowing-out process”

is applicable to such cases as Eschscholtzia, Myrtle, Rose, Hovenia,

&e. This process causes a development of the circumference of the

receptacle, peduncle, or other part, while the central portion is un-

developed, and thus there arises a cup-like body with a hollow centre.

In such instances there seemed to be a union in the early state of the

circumferential cellular papillee, arising from the peduncle or receptacle

or other part ; these became elongated so as to form a gamophyllous

456 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

rim of greater or less depth, enclosing a hollow space in which cer-

tain organs are developed. he pitcher-like peduncle or receptacle

was often intimately connected with the calyx, and was lined by

eal matter in the form of a disk.

. “On Linaria sepium of Allman,” by C. C. Babington, M.A.—

se p- 408.

. *On Diseases in Plants caused by Mites,”’ by Mr. Hardy, of

Padmaiichiel A specimen of Broom injured by insects, gathered in

the West of Scotland, having been submitted to Mr. Hardy, he sent

the following remarks upon it :—‘‘I ascribe the disease in Broom to

colonies of young mites inhabiting the interior of the buds. I ob-

served them very distinctly with a triple lens, but the mites being

dead, I have not succeeded in detaching one to place, under the mi-

croscope, but with fresh specimens It have no doubt you would detect

them. ‘They are of a pink colour, or paler tinted. In the Berwick-

shire Club’s Proceedings, vol. iii. No. 3. p. 111, I have recorded all

the observations I have made on this subject. T have met with

three galls on the Broom, caused by the larvee of Cecidomyie, but

not, as yet, this mite production. The rent in the bark of the branch

appears to be owing to a caterpillar which I often observed in the

shoots ; a part of its web remains under one of the buds.’ On other

plants injured by mites Mr. Hardy remarked—“ I send you specimens

of Helianthemum vulgare, altered in a singular manner by the larvee

of mites, and precisely similar to the buds of wild thyme and those

of broom sent by you lately, except that the stem takes part in the

alteration, owing perhaps to some of the mites harbouring in the

axils. It is from a dry steep bank at Monynnt, among the Lammer-

muirs. The young mites have the same appearance as those observed

in broom, and will probably reach vou alive. The buds are often

occupied ‘by a gall-fly larva, and the effects are not unlike, but not

to this degree. I also send dwarf plants of Lpilobium palustre,

which have the leaves twisted and sometimes rendered involute by

larvee of mites. The buds of Lotus corniculatus, and sometimes the

leaves, have purple spots occupied by mite larvee. I can trace no

difference in any of them. Specimens are likewise sent of Geranium

molle from a barren pasture im the Lammermuirs; it is completely

occupied by mites.”

6. “ Botanical Notes,”’ by Dr. J. D. Hooker, in a letter to Dr.

Balfour. Dr. Hooker remarks (1.) that the natural order Balano-

phoracee is truly Dicotyledonous, and far removed from Rafflesiasee,

the latter being (as Brown pointed out) closely allied to Aristolochia.

The Balanophoracee are far more perfect in their ovules, and have

albuminous seeds, with a Dicotyledonous embryo. ‘They are closely

allied to Gunnera.—(2.) He finds the germination of Nympheacee

to be genuinely Dicotyledonous. It is only the adventitious roots

which are sheathed, as is the case with many other exogens. The

rhizome of the Order is a very reduced form of the exogenous, but

not at all constructed on the endogenous type. The species of

Nympheacee must apparently be reduced to a very few, for in India

half-a-dozen varieties in colour, number of petals, stamens and stig-

Linnean Society. 457

matic rays, are found in one tank, and no two tanks have exactly the

same forms.—(3.) Dr. Hooker considers that Brown’s theory of

carpellary sutural placentation is the correct one, and that axile and

free placentation may be reduced to it. Dr. Hooker mentions a case

of Stachys with a four-lobed, one-celled ovary formed by two carpels

placed back and front, and bearing half-way up a pair of parietal

sutural ovules; also a Primrose with parietal ovules. The Yew

which Schleiden describes as having an ovule terminating the axis,

has been shown to have often two ovules, and when one, it is always

oblique and lateral.

7. “On Stellaria umbrosa, Opitz,” by Mr. G. Lawson. Stellaria

umbrosa, hitherto only known as a Sussex plant, had been observed

by Mr. Lawson on the shore near Rossyth Castle, in Fifeshire. He

had not, however, much faith in its claims to specific distinction,

and regarded it in the light of a book species, made out of forms of

S. media; the Scotch S. umbrosa appeared to form even a greater

departure from the typical S. media than the Sussex one. No plant

appeared to be more capable of adapting itself to all conditions of

soil, climate, and situation, than Ste//aria media, and to this cireum-

stance was due the numerous forms of the plant known to botanists ;

the extremes of these forms were remarkably distinct from each other ;

but when studied in detail, all were found to be intimately linked

together.

LINNAZAN SOCIETY.

January 7th, 1854.—Robert Brown, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

Read Extracts from a Letter, addressed by Dr. Edward Vogel to

Berthold Seemann, Esq., Ph.D., F.L.S.

Dr. Vogel, as is well known, is attached to the expedition dis-

patched by Her Majesty's government for the exploration of Central

Africa. He quitted London on the 19th of February 1853, reached

Tripoli in the beginning of March; and after a stay of several

months, caused partly by the delays of his travelling companion, the

brother of the Sheikh of Bornou, and partly by his own preparations,

he started southwards towards the end of June, and after passing

Benoulid and Soknu, reached Mourzouk on the 5th of August. On

the 15th of October he was to leave that place for Lake T'sad; but

previously he addressed, along with his official dispatches, various

letters to his friends in Europe, treating of different branches of

science ; and among these one to Dr. Seemann, dated ‘‘ Mourzouk,

October 8th, 1853,” giving some account of the botanical features

of the region between Tripoli and Mourzouk, from which the fol-

lowing extracts are taken :—

“There will shortly arrive at the Foreign Office in London

a box containing amongst other things a collection of dried plants

addressed to Mr. Robert Brown. ‘The following will serve as

a commentary on that collection; and you will greatly oblige

me by communicating it to that savant, and making known those

parts which you consider fit for publication. ‘The plants were

458 Linnean Society.

chiefly collected in Fezzan, except a few on the coast of North

Africa; for I did not like to fill the paper I am able to carry with

well-known things ; and, moreover, the numerous preparations for

my journey left but little time for botanical pursuits during my stay

at Tripoli. I was in hopes of making a rich harvest in the great

valleys through which my route lay, about the 30th degree of north

latitude; but, contrary to expectation, all vegetation was dried up

with the exception of a Ruta, which was to be met with in situations

less exposed to the scorching rays of the African sun; still, high

bunches of withered Grasses, and fields covered with Artemisias and

Thymus, gave evidence of what I might have collected if I had come

three months earlier. ‘The more I advanced towards the south, the

more naked became the country, until at last, about Fezzan, nearly

every vestige of wild plants had disappeared, save a shrubby Tamariz

and a spinose Papilionacea, called Agil by the Arabs, and used as

fodder for the camels; and the eye perceived, for days in succession,

nothing but date palms, under which the drifting sand of the desert,

the bane of vegetation, had accumulated to a considerable height, as

if attempting to bury even these trees under its deadly mantle. In

the gardens of the neighbourhood of Mourzouk the inhabitants cul-

tivate with great care several kinds of grain and culinary vegetables.

The seeds are sown in decomposed manure, with which the hard

salty soil has previously been covered about 2 inches high. To irri-

gate a garden of about 100 square yards, one man has to work twelve

hours, a labour for which he gets a fourth of the produce of the

piece of ground he attends. During winter, barley and wheat are

grown; during the summer, Gosub and Garfuli; of the latter two I

have transmitted specimens, because they furnish the chief portion

of the food of the inhabitants of the Sahara, and because there are

so many contradictory statements regarding their botanical name;

indeed to such a degree do the accounts of travellers vary, that one

calls them beans, another rice, while again a third party pronounces

them to be millet. The ‘‘ Garfuli mosri,” so often mentioned by

African travellers, is the Indian corn (Zea Mays), the spikes of which

are gathered before they are quite ripe; and in that state they are

toasted and eaten.

«To convey a notion of the poor return agriculture yields in this

part of the world, I will state that the inhabitants surround each

spike of the Gosub and Garfuli abiad with a neatly-made basket, in

order to prevent the wild pigeons from picking the seeds.

«« Among the few trees growing here, the finest is a Cornus, called

Kurno by the Arabs; it attains a height of 80 feet, and a diameter

of about 3 feet; the country about Sudan and Bornu is, I am in-

formed, its true native land, and the 26th degree of north latitude

appears to be its most northern range. A description, and additional

information concerning this tree, will be found with the flowering

specimens in my herbarium. The Gum Acacia will also be found in

my collection; it enlivens and adorns the most stony sides of the

valleys of the Wadi Scherzi and Cherbi. ‘The specimen of the gum

is very small; but there was some difficulty in procuring more, as

Linnean Society. 459

all the trees growing near the road are generally well searched by

the Arabs, who collect the gum as an article of food for themselves.

I could never find the eating of gum-arabic much to my taste. Most

of this article is brought by the Tuariks, and seems to grow be-

tween Dgerma and Ghat.

« According to Sir W. Hooker, in the Admiralty ‘ Manual of Scien-

tific Inquiry’ of 1851, the plant producing the senna of commerce is

still unknown botanically. I collected it in Wadi Cherbi, near

Dgerma, west of Mourzouk, where it grew wild under date palms ;

it is found in enormous masses in Ahir, to the south of this place ;

but it is now-a-days gathered in very small quantities, as senna-

leaves, on account of their trifling value (half-a-crown the cwt.),

are not sufficiently remunerative to bear the cost of the transport,

and the 24 per cent. transit duty levied upon them here. I have

also sent seeds of the Sudan cotton-plant, in case I should not go

far enough west to collect them in their native country. In the

materia medica of the Arabs, Peganum Harmala, vernacularly termed

Harmel, occupies a prominent place. It is celebrated as a preventa-

tive against ophthalmia. For that purpose the immature seed-vessels

are recommended ; every Arab swallows in the spring of the year

about a dozen of them, fancying that in doing so he will be exempt

from all diseases of the eyes. I have not been able to ascertain

whether the seed-vessels purify the blood or act as a purgative.

Peganum Harmala ranges from the north coast of this continent to

Fezzan, and is very common; as is also the Cucurbitacea, known by

the name of Colocynth, the fruits of which are eaten by the ostriches.

This Cucurbitacea covers the valleys of the Black Mountains; in the

Wadi Cherbi and Wadi Scherzi, the most fertile districts of Fezzan,

it is a most troublesome weed. ‘The Tibus are very fond of the

seeds; they roast them in the manner the Germans occasionally do

those of the pumpkin, after they have previously been soaked twelve

hours in water to deprive them of their bitter taste. The fruit itself

is used against urinary complaints and diseases of the sexual organs,

which are very common in these parts; it is placed in a basin of

milk, and after remaining in it about twelve hours, the fluid is drank.

Ricinus communis is common in the neighbourhood of Tripoli, and

the oil of it might become an article of export, if they would only

take the trouble of gathering the geeds. I met here, in Fezzan, an

old acquaintance, in the shape of the sunflower ( Helianthus annuus ),

which, growing to the height of about 9 feet, is the only ornament

of the small cottage gardens ; its seeds are eaten. I was also very

glad to ind Tulipa sylvestris, a great ornament of the Targona moun-

tains. I have been unable to collect more than a single specimen ;

for although the } lant occurs ir the locality mentioned in enormous

quantities, I arrived too early (end of March) to see it in flower. In

my collection there are specimens of a plant resembling in foliage

the thorn, and I have mentioned on the slip of paper accompanying

it, that the bark of its root is used by the Arabs for tanning leather

and dyeing red. (A small parcel of this drug is for Sir W. Hooker.)

I have omitted to add, that the charcoal of this shrub is used in

4.60 Linnean Society.

manufacturing gunpowder ; for there are, it must be known, a great

many secret powder-mills, especially in Benoulid, which manufac-

ture an inferior sort of powder, sold for about two shillings the

pound.

« After this digression [ return to the theme I had in view in com-

mencing this letter,—to give an account of the useful and cultivated

plants of Fezzan. I will begin with the date-palm. All Fezzan and

half of Tripolitania live upon it. Here every door, every post is

made of date-palm wood; the ceilings of the rooms are of the stems

of that tree, between which are laid the leaves of the palm, instead

of the cane used by us. The poorer classes live in huts entirely

made of date-palm leaves. Date-palms furnish the most common

fuel (the poor people bringing a bundle of it on their backs to this

place from a distance of from six to eight miles, for which they get

one piastre, i.e. 2d.). Dates are the food of both man and beast;

camels, horses, dogs, all eat dates. Even the kernels of this fruit

are soaked in water, and after having become soft, are given to the

cattle*.

«On the sheet enclosed I have given figures and descriptions of

thirty-eight varieties of the date-palm, from which it will be seen that

this tree varies quite as much as our cherries and plums; in the tree

itself, independent of the fruit, I have never been able to find a dif-

ference. Of the enormous numbers in which this palm occurs you

can hardly form a conception. When Abdel Gelil besieged Soknu

(1829), he felled all the date-palms he could, to compel the town to

surrender, and his people cut down, during seven days, 43,000

trees; and yet there are still 70,000 to be found. Their produce is

comparatively small ;—100 full-grown trees yield about 40 cwts. of

dates, worth at this place 30 shillings. In ‘Tripoli the same quan-

tity would fetch about four times that sum. The dates, after having

been gathered, are dried in the sun, and when quite hard, buried in

the sand. ‘They may thus be preserved about two years; but after

the first eighteen months they are attacked by the worms, and in

the beginning of the third year nothing is left of them but the ker-

nels. As an every-day food dates are considered very heating; and

this is the reason why they are not much used on a journey, travellers

being obliged to drink too often. ‘They are most wholesome, and

taste best, when made into dough with barley. When the heart of

the leaves has been cut out, a sweet thickish fluid collects in that

* There is no grass, nor any other herbage, except a little Sassfah (Me-

lilotus), cultivated with almost as much care as the corn, and fetching on

that account a good price; a bundle, about as much as oae is able to hold

in both hands, is sold for 2 piastres (4 pence). I was obliged to send my

camels about 100 miles to the north, the nearest place where there is sufli-

cient pasture for them. Here, about Mourzouk, there is nothing but sand

and salt; the ninety gardens, outside of the town, cover together about a

quarter of an English square mile. In the whole town of Mourzouk there

are only two cows, one of which belongs to the pasha; there are no goats ;

sheep are brought from Wadi Scherzi, fifty miles distant. When we happen

to have milk for our tea or cofiee, we consider it a feast.

Linnean Society. 461

cavity, called Lagbi, which is very refreshing and slightly purgative.

A few hours afterwards the fluid begins to ferment, becomes acid

and very intoxicating. (The sap is not tapped, as Dr. Gumbrecht

has stated in Wappau’s ‘ Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik,’

Band ii. p. 57, 7th edition.) From the ripe fruit a syrup is prepared,

used especially for making leather-pipes oil-tight, and also for distil-

ling a brandy called arogi.”

After giving many other details concerning the date-palm, Dr.

Vogel proceeds thus :—‘‘I have taken great care to note down the

southern limits of the fruit-trees, and I will give you the result

of my observations. In Tripoli there are oranges, lemons, pista-

chios, pomegranates, figs, St. John’s bread, mulberries, peaches,

apricots, almonds, olives, opuntias, and grapes in great abundance.

Apples and pears are rather plentiful, but of poor flavour. The best

varieties of pears degenerate in a very few years. Cherry-trees there

are three; one of them stood in the garden in which my people

were located, and I gathered from it six cherries. Melons and

water-melons arrive at great perfection, and the latter I have seen

weighing as much as 150 lbs. They are sown on the hard hills of

the desert, and the young plants are protected from the sun by

boughs ; they require no artificial irrigation, the heavy dew being

sufficient for their growth. Potatoes also succeed in Tripoli; the

tubers are very large, and have a fine flavour. Chestnuts there are

none. Of the above-mentioned fruits the following go as far south

as Mourzouk (lat. 25° 55’), viz. pomegranates, figs, peaches, almonds

and grapes. The vine succeeds extremely well on the shores of the

natron lakes of Fezzan; the branches of this plant have very small

leaves, and climb over pomegranates and fig-trees; the most com-

mon grapes are the black varieties; the white are scarce. A few

apple-trees are found in Wadi Schati (about 26° 30! N.L.), but

their fruit is unfit for use. Oranges, lemons, pistachios, and St.

John’s bread do not go further than the Targona Mountains; they

are confined to a district of about fifty miles from the coast. The

olive-tree is not found beyond Benoulid, on the southern slope of

the Targona Mountains (31° 44’ N.L.), and at the same place is

found the last Opuntia vulgaris. The mulberry-tree goes as far

south as Soknu (29° 4‘), the apricot as far as Sebha (27° 3'). A

group of about fifty olive-trees is found, it is true, near the village

of Abiad, in Wadi Cherbi (27° N.L.), but they bear no fruit. Cotton

is seen here and there in gardens, commencing at Bondjem, (both

Gossypium arboreum and herbaceum,) but the state of the soil does not

admit of its being extensively cultivated. The vine is said to grow

wild in Tripolitania, but that statement must be incorrect ; I have

never seen it except cultivated.”

February 7.—Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Read a “‘ Note on the Elaters of Trichia.’ By Arthur Henfrey,

Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

After referring to observations by Hedwig, Kaulfuss and Corda,

asserting the existence of spiral fibres in the filamentous elaters

4.62 Linnean Society.

mixed with the spores of Trichia, and to those of M. Schleiden and

of M. Schacht, by whom these spiral fibres are called in question,

Mr. Henfrey states, that having examined the elaters of a species

of Trichia (Tr. serotina, Schrad. ?), in some specimens sent to the

Society from New Zealand by Mr. Ralph, he is prepared to assert

positively the existence in them of spiral fibres exactly analogous to

those in Marchantia polymorpha. ‘The number of fibres in an elater

of this species of Trichia is three; in some species Corda describes

a much greater number, but this Mr. Henfrey regards as open to

doubt. ‘The fibres thin off towards the very gradually attenuated

ends of the tubular elaters, and apparently become confluent there,

in the same manner as he has himself described in those of Mar-

chantia polymorpha (Linn. Trans. vol. xxi. p. 107); but the ends are

so fine, that even with a power of 1000 diameters and a good light,

he could not clearly define the terminations of the fibres, The

tubular character of the elaters was proved by a transverse section

of certain curved filaments, which gave a circular form; and the

spiral structure was clearly distinguishable with a power of 250

diameters; but in order to count the fibres, it was necessary to take

out a few of the elaters, and to mount them in the thinnest possible

film of liquid under very thin glass, and apply a magnifying power

of 1000, when the individual fibres could be made out with quite

sufficient clearness to allow of their being drawn with the camera

lucida. These elaters, Mr. Henfrey observes, may be regarded

as very good test-objects for the defining power of the higher

object-glasses ; or, perhaps—considering the confusing effect of the

crossing nerves of the number of parallel spiral fibres—as test-

objects, by which to measure the value of observations on the more

difficult tissues. Viewed in this light, he regards the conclusions

on this subject drawn by M. Schleiden and by M. Schacht as indi-

cating an inferiority in the microscopes used by those observers.

Read also, ‘‘ Notes on the habits of Meduse and of small Fishes,”

By Charles W. Peach, Esq. Communicated by Dr. Francis, F.L.S.

Mr. Peach’s observations were made at Peterhead, N.B., in the

beginning of August last, at which time Cyanea aurita and Cyanea

capillata (or C. inscripta of Peron ?) were so abundant in the harbour

and bay as occasionally very much to inconvenience the fishermen,

and render it difficult to lift the oars, especially of small boats, from

amongst them. Round these Meduse very small fishes were ob-

served playing, sometimes sporting round C. aurita, and quitting it

on a sudden for C. inscripta when an enemy came near. Occasion-

ally two or three might be seen attending one of the Cyanee; and

when attacked or alarmed, rushing under its umbrella and among

the tentacula, so as to shelter themselves in the large folds con-

nected with the ova, where they remained until the danger had

passed, and then emerged again to sport and play around their shel-

tering friend. When under the umbrella seeking shelter, they lay

so close as to allow themselves to be taken into a bucket with the

Medusa, from beneath which after a short time they would come out

Linnean Society. 463

and gambol as while in the sea. In this way Mr. Peach captured

many young whitings, measuring from less than an inch to 25 inches

in length. It was evident that they resorted to the Meduse for pro-

tection, and not, as sometimes stated, that they are preyed upon by

these glass-like creatures; and it is probably with a view to greater

security that they prefer the stinging species, with its eight bunches

of long tentacula and large fringed ovaries, to Cyanea aurita, with

its single, and frequently short row of delicate appendages. What,

then, Mr. Peach asks, becomes of the paralysing influence of the

tentacles of this Medusa on fishes? This, he thinks, opens a new

field for observation. He believes, too, that the facts which he has

observed, if not conclusive against, at least throw considerable doubt

on the fish-eating propensities ascribed to the Meduse; for he is

convinced that in these instances the fishes resorted to the Meduse

as to protectors, and not enemies. In no instance did he observe a

fish in the stomach of the Meduse, but all were free to depart when

they pleased. ‘The Cyanea aurita, he adds, is called at Peterhead

** Loch Lobberton” and ‘‘ Loch Robertson,” and the other species

“the Doctor.”’ In an instance subsequently recorded in his journal,

Mr. Peach states that a small whiting, which was gliding round a

small weak Cyanea aurita, was attacked by a young pollack, or

‘*baddock,” whose movements it easily evaded by dodging round the

Medusa. A second baddock, however, saon joined in the pursuit ;

but both were for some time baffled, until an unlucky move drove the

whiting from its poor shelter, and then a severe chase took place. The

pursuers were joined by others, who followed like a pack of hounds,

until the whiting became exhausted, and was left by its enemies,

who were unable to swallow it, to all appearance dead. In this

state the tide gently drifted it along with the Cyanea, until after a

time it recovered, swam slowly to its protector, and took refuge as

before. ‘The pack soon observed it, drove it again into open water,

and this time succeeded in really killing it. During their attack

upon it, Mr. Peach repeatedly threw stones among them to induce

them to desist; but so intent were they on the pursuit, that they

dashed on unheedingly, although at any other time the smallest

stone would have alarmed and driven them aside.

April 18.—William Yarrell, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Read a letter from Robert Wakefield, Esq., F.L.S., to John

Curtis, Esq., F.L.S., On some of the Habits of Ants.”

In this letter Mr. Wakefield relates some observations, made by

himself many years ago, with reference to that curious insect called

by Horace ‘‘ magni Formica laboris,”’ Most modern writers, he ob-

serves, including Huber, have relinquished the old idea that Ants

amass grain for their winter store; but he states that he has seen

the black species (Mormica nigra, L.?) for days and nights together

industriously occupied in dragging to its cells the seeds of the com-

mon violet (Viola odorata, L.). He first noticed this fact on the

464: Linnean Society.

3rd of July 1832; and he regards it as a subject of curious inquiry

for what purpose, if not for their own future provision, they could

accumulate these stores? Could they be intended as food for the

Aphides during winter? That they work all night has long been

known; Pliny says only during the full moon, but Mr. Wakefield

observed them at work at midnight on two successive nights, the

6th and 7th of June, in rainy weather and without any reference to

the full moon. The late Mr. Joshua Milne, F.L.S., was summoned

by a neighbour one morning in February to see a colony of red

ants, which he had turned up while digging in his garden; and

mixed with the ants Mr. Milne saw many living Aphides, and also

some vegetable substance on which they had probably subsisted

during the winter. Many observers have noticed ants caressing

Aphides during the summer; but Mr. Wakefield had never before

met with any one who had seen them together during their winter

retreat.

In confirmation of the storing up of food for winter provision by

some species of Ant, Mr. Adam White, F.L.S., referred to Colonel

Sykes’s Observations on the Storing Ant of Poonah, the Atta pro-

videns, described and figured in the ‘ Transactions of the Entomo-

logical Society ;) and to a Monograph of the East Indian Ants by

Mr. Jerdon, published first in the ‘Asiatic Journal,’ and subse-

quently in the ‘ Annals of Natural History.’

Mr. Adam White, F.L.S., also exhibited the type-specimen of a

fine Prionidous Beetle (Baladeva Walkeri), described by Mr. Water-

house, from the collection of the late Sir Patrick Walker, and closely

related to Dorysthenes rostratus, Vig., the type-specimen of which,

described by Fabricius under the name of Cyrtognaihus rostratus,

from the cabinet of Sir Joseph Banks, forms part of the collection

presented to the Linnean Society by that distinguished patron of

science. Mr. White regretted that he had been unable to attend

the last meeting of the Society, at which Mr. Curtis’s paper on

Hypocephalus was read. He thought, however, that Mr. Curtis

laid too great stress on the tarsal system, which Mr. W.8. MacLeay

had shown to be very weak when used alone as a leading character,

a fact of which Latreille himself was well aware. He stated that

having for years studied Longicorn Beetles, he could not fail to be

struck, the first time he saw the specimen of Hypocephalus, with the

correctness of Dr. Burmeister’s determination, and with Mr. West-

wood’s observations on its Longicorn character. To Mr. Curtis’s

observation that it was pentamerous, he replied that the Parandride

are all so, and yet are essentially Longicorn in type; that Tricteno-

toma of Mr. G. R. Gray, of which four species are now recorded, is

heteromerous, and is even sublamellicorn in its antenne; that in-

sects, and indeed animals generally, which are fossorial or internal

feeders, or aquatic, are often in external characters wonderfully

similar to genera in totally different groups, and have (what are

often deemed) essential characters of the group so adapted and

changed as to be quite altered in external appearance. Of these

Miscellaneous. 465

modifications he gaye several instances both in vertebrated and arti-

culated animals ; and in particular directed attention to such Longi-

corn Coleoptera as Erichsonia, Thaumasus (regarded by Olivier as a

species of Ips), Torneutes, Cantharocnemis, Sipylus, and Anoploderma

of Guérin, and a pentamerous Australian genus (Dore pentamera),

known to him only by Mr. Newman’s description.

Mr. White next proceeded to exhibit a small but valuable collec-

tion of Thibetan Coleopterous Insects, made by Dr. T. Thomson,

F.L.S., which he proposes hereafter to make the subject of a paper.

He remarked on the Mediterranean character of these denizens of

an Alpine plateau, such as exists at Iskardo, where they were col-

lected ; and in reference to the destruction of species, drew attention

to the remarkable genus Deucalion, a Longicorn insect discovered

on barren rocks near Madeira by Mr. Wollaston, F.L.S., which will

shortly be published in Mr. Wollaston’s work on the Coleoptera of

Madeira.

MISCELLANEOUS.

ALPHEUS AFFINIS.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Elmore Court, Noy. 10, 1854.

GENTLEMEN,—On reading over my paper upon the new Alpheus

in the October Number of the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural

History,’ I find that I have by some strange inadvertence overlooked

an incorrectness, which has the effect of exactly neutralizing a point

upon which I especially desire to insist.

At page 277, commencing at the ninth line from the bottom, are

these words—“ Differs in not having the moveable finger longer than

the immoveable one,’’ which is exactly the reverse of the fact; it

should have run thus—“ Differs in xot having the moveable finger

SHORTER than the immoveable one.’’—which constitutes one of the

main points of difference between my ‘‘ 4. afinis’’ and the “4. ruber”

of Milne-Edwards.

In the description of ‘“ Alpheus affinis”’ in the following page

(278) the characteristics are correctly given.

Begging you kindly to give insertion to this communication in your

next Number,

T remain, Gentlemen, yours sincerely obliged,

W. V. Guise.

On a new species of Rock Kangaroo. By Dr. J. E. Gray.

Fellow-legged Rock Kangaroo, Petrogale xanthopus.

Pale brown, minutely grisled ; chin and beneath white; streak on

side from the back of shoulder, and along the side of the face under

Ann. & Mag. N. Mist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 3

4.66 Meteorological Observations.

the eye whitish ; dorsal streak narrow, brown; legs, feet and tail

bright yellow ; end of tail more bushy and brown, varied ; ears red.

Australia ; Richmond River ?

This species has all the markings like Petrogale lateralis, but

differs in being of a much paler and yellower colour, and in the bright

yellow colour of the legs and basal part of the tail.

It is about the same size as P. penicillatus, or rather between it

and P. lateralis.

There are two specimens of this species (male and female) in the

collection of the British Museum, procured from Mr. Strange, but

unfortunately not accompanied by their precise habitat, and sent with

specimens from South Australia and Richmond River.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR ocr. 1854.

Chiswick.—October 1. Foggy: drizzly: overcast and fine: foggy. 2. Dense

fog: very fine. 3,4. Very fine. 5. Fine, but windy. 6. Rain. 7. Overcast.

8. Cloudy and fine. 9. Fine: overcast. 10. Foggy: exceedingly fine: rain at

night. 11. Fine throughout. 12. Clear. 13. Foggy: very fine. 14. Foggy:

hazy: slight drizzle. 15. Foggy and drizzly: cloudy: rain. 16. Very fine.

17. Foggy: rain. 18. Rain: overcast and windy. 19. Fine: rain at night.

20. Showery. 21. Cloudy. 22. Densely clouded: fine. 23. Fine: clear. 24.

Very fine: heavy rain. 25. Constant rain. 26. Clear and very fine. 27. Frosty

and foggy: very fine. 28, 29. Very fine. 30. Foggy: very fine: cloudless. 31.

Exceedingly fine.

Mean temperature of the month ...........2.s.ces.sccenseeseeeo» 48°-20

Mean temperature of Oct. 1853 ...........0000.s2-scnseeeesee po 4) ON)

Mean temperature of Oct. for the last twenty-eight years ... 50 °06

Averare amMount.on raiminy OCbaeyemscecteen-e-cerecvecte ssc reins 2°68 inches.

Boston.—Oct. 1, 2. Foggy. 3. Cloudy. 4. Fine. 5. Fine: rain p.m. 6. Cloudy.

7,8. Fine. 9. Cloudy: rain a.m. 10. Fine. 11. Cloudy: rain a.m. 12, 13.

Fine. 14. Cloudy. 15. Cloudy: rainp.m. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain p.m.

18, Rain aA.m.and p.m. 19. Cloudy. 20. Cloudy: rain a.M.ande.m. 21. Fine.

22. Cloudy: rain a.m. 23, 24. Fine. 25. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 26, 27.

Fine. 28. Cloudy. 29. Fine. 30. Cloudy. 31. Clondy: rain p.m.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Oct. 1. Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m. 2. Rain a.m. and

p.m. 3. Showers a.M.: clear p.m. 4. Cloudy a.m.and p.m. 5. Showers A.M. :

clear p.m. 6. Hail-showers A.M.: clear p.m. 7. Showers A.M.: clear P.M. 8.

Clear, fine a.m.: fog p.m. 9. Rain a.m.: cloudy p.m. 10. Clear, fine a.m. :

showers p.m. 11. Showers a.m.: sleet, showers P.M. 12. Clear, fine a.M.:

clear p.m. 13. Drizzle a.m.: clear p.m. 14. Clear, fine A.m.: cloudy p.m. 15—

17. Showers a.m. and vp.mM. 18. Hail-showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 19—22. Showers

A.M.and p.M. 23. Bright A.M.: showers P.M. 24. Clear, frost a.m. : clear, frost,

aurora P.M. 25. Cloudy, frost A.M. : sleet-showers, aurora P.M. 26. Sleet-showers

A.M. and P.M. 27. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 28. Rain a.m.: cloudy p.m. 29.

Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m. 30,31. Clear a.m. and p.m.

Mean temperature of Oct. for twenty-seven previous years ... 47°°68

Mean temperature of this month .......... GadoodSdocsadTasAaooaNC 46 -39

Mean temperature of Oct. 853 qi asemere.deceece-actcenseeesessehes 48 -66

Average quantity of rain in Oct. for fourteen previous years . 5°07 inches.

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468

INDEX no VOLe XIV.

Acuts

122.

Actiniz, new species of British, 280 ;

on the development of the, 395.

Adams, A., on a new genus and se-

veral new species of Mollusca, 69 ;

Manual of Natural History for the

use of travellers, reviewed, 375.

Adams, H. and A., on two new genera

of bivalve Mollusea, 76, 418.

/Egilops, on the natural and artificial

feeundation of, by Triticum, 394,

AEquorea, new species of, 294.

Agassiz, L., on the primitive diversity

and number of animals m geolo-

gical times, 350.

Alder, J., on some new species of

British Nudibranchiata,102 ; on the

branchial currents m the Lamelli-

branchiata, 177.

Algee, on the so-called eye-spot in

microscopic, 232.

Alpheus, new species of, 275, 465.

Alveolina, on the true position of the

canaliferous structure in the shell

of, 99.

Alyczeus, on the geographical distri-

bution of, 415.

Anacharis Alsinastrum, on the mtro-

duction of, 309.

Animals, on the primitive diversity

and number of, in geological times,

350.

Antechinus, new species of, 301.

Antiopa, new species of, 105.

Ants, on the habits of, 463.

Aphides, on the development of vivi-

parous, 81.

Aquaria, memoranda of observations

made in small, 366; on manufac-

tured sea-water for, 65, 419.

UNICA, observations on,

Ascidia, remarks on the formation of,

455.

Athyrium rhzeticum, note on, 237.

Babington, C. C., on Linaria sepium

of Allman, 408.

Bailey, Prof. J. W., on a mode of

giving permanent flexibility to

brittle specimens m botany and

zoology, 373.

Baird, Dr. W., on the Branchipodide,

with descriptions of a new genus

and species of the family, and two

new species of Limnadiade, 216.

Balfour, Prof., on the plants of the

coal epoch, and on the general

structure of coal, 229; on the

formation of aseidia, 455.

Bartlett, A. D., on some bones of

Didus, 297.

Beale’s, L., Microscope and its Ap-

plication to Clinical Medicine, re-

viewed, 204.

Beneden, Prof. van, on the develop-

ment of Coenurus cerebralis, 234.

Benson, W. H., on some Indian

species of Cyclophorus, 411.

Blackwall, J., notes on the British

spiders, 28.

Books, new :—Dawson’s Geodephaga

Britannica, 198; Mantell’s Medals

of Creation, 201; Caspary’s Ge-

nera Plantarum Flore Germanice,

203; Beale’s Microscope and its

Application to Clinical Medicine,

204; Hogg’s Microscope, its His-

tory, Construction, and Applica-

tions, ib.; Sowerby’s Ferns of Great

Britam, 284; A Manual of Na-

tural History for the use of Tra-

vellers, 375.

Bos frontalis, observations on, 444.

INDEX.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh, pro-

ceedings of the, 151, 229, 312, 455.

Botanical specimens, on a means of

preserving brittle, 373.

Bovine animals of the Malay Penin-

sula, notes on the, 318.

Bowerbank, J. S., on the remains of

a gigantic bird, 263.

Brachiopoda, new species of, 145; on

the anatomy of the, 285.

Branchipodide, monograph of the

family, 216.

Braun, A., on the occurrence of zine

in the vegetable organism, 316.

Brooke, C., on the structure of cer-

tain microscopic test-objects, 441.

Burnett, Dr. W. I., on the develop-

ment of viviparous Aphides, 81.

Calanidee, new arctic species of, 125.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., on a peculiar

arrangement of the sanguiferous

system in Terebratula and certain

other Brachiopoda, 205.

Carter, H. J., on the true position of

the canaliferous structure in the

shell of fossil Alveolma, 99; on

zoosperms in Spongilla, 334.

Caspary’s, R., Genera Plantarum

Florz Germanic, reviewed, 203.

Caulerpa, new species of, 197.

Clark, W., on the Aclis

Clubiona, notes on some species of, 30.

Coal, on the various sections of, con-

sidered in their relation to the

block, 153; on the general struc-

ture of, 229.

Ceenurus cerebralis, on the develop-

ment of, 234, 315.

Concholepas, new species of, 70.

Conferve, on the cultivation of ma-

rine, in aquaria, 370.

Coniferze, on the fecundation of the,

429.

Crassatella, new species of, 71.

Crescentiacez, on the natural order,

233.

Crustacea, on some new cretaceous,

116.

Culicivora, new species of, 158.

Curculionide, new genus of, 129.

Curtis, J., on a weevil of the vine

and its parasite, 231.

Cyclophorus, new species of, 411.

Cyclostomacez, on the geographical

distribution of the, in Hmdostan,

414.

unica,

469

Cyclostomus, on the geographical

distribution of, 417.

Cyclotus, note on the genus, 416.

Dallas, E. W., on the structure of

Diatomacez, 152.

Davidson, T., on a few new recent

species of Brachiopoda, 145.

Dawson’s, J. F., Geodephaga Britan-

nica, reviewed, 198.

Dendrolagus inustus, on the anatomy

of, 448.

Diatomacez, on the structure of, 152.

Dick, R., on a new habitat for Hie-

rochloé borealis, 314.

Dickie, Dr. G., on associations of

colour and relations of colour and

form in plants, 401.

Didus, on some bones of, 297.

Difflugia Enchelys, on the develop-

ment of, 331.

Diplommatina, new species of, 70;

note on the genus, 417.

Doris, new species of, 102.

Drassus, notes on some species of, 30.

Earl, G. W., on the bovine animals of

the Malay Peninsula, 318.

Echinococcus vetermorum, on the

anatomy and development of, 379.

Embletonia, new species of, 105.

Eolis, new species of, 104.

Eopsaltria, new species of, 302.

Epéira, notes on some species of, 33.

Ercolani, M., on the embryogeny and

propagation of intestinal worms,

156.

Estheria, new species of, 229.

Fauna of Dacea, notes on the, 168.

Ferns, on the fertilization of, 272.

Fishes allied to Gymnotus, on some,

398.

Flower, W. H., on the dissection of a

species of Galago, 307.

Forbes, Prof. E., on an indication of

depth of primeval seas, afforded by

the remams of colour in fossil

Testacea, 67; on a_ species of

/K.quorea inhabiting the British seas,

294,

Fraser, L., on anew species of Hyrax,

158.

Galago, on the anatomy of a species

of, 307.

Galiacez, on the occurrence of *‘ Cin-

chonaceous glands ”’ in, 161.

Garreau, Dr., on the formation of the

stomata in the epidermis of the

leaves of the Spiderwort, and on the

470

evolution of the cells in their neigh-

bourhood, 75.

Glyphzea, new species of, 118.

Godron, M., on the natural and

artificial fecundation of Aigilops by

Triticum, 394.

Gosse, P. H., on manufactured sea-

water for the aquarium, 65; on

three new speciesof British Actiniz,

280.

Gould, J., on two new species of

Antechinus, 301 ; on a new species

of Ptilotis and a new species of

Eopsaltria, 302.

Gray, G. R., on the species of the

genus Sericinus, 305; on a new

species of Suthora, 397.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the arrangement

of the families of bivalve shells, 21 ;

on the Ounces, 394 ; on the African

seal, Heliophoca Atlantica, 394 ;

ona new species of rock kangaroo,

465.

Gray, 8. O., note on Athyrium rhe-

ticum, 237.

Greville, R. K., on a new species of

Caulerpa, 197.

Griffith, Dr. J. W., on the relation of

the angular aperture of object-

glasses to their penetrating power

and to oblique light, 212.

Grube, Dr. E., on the occurrence of

larvee of Sarcophaga in the human

eye and nose, 238.

Guise, W. V., on a new species of

Alpheus, 275, 465.

Gymnotus, on some fishes allied to,

398.

Haime, M., on the development of

the Actiniz, 395.

Hancock, A., on some new species of

British Nudibranchiata, 102.

Hardy, Mr., on diseases in plants

caused by mites, 456.

Heliophoca atlantica, note on the, 394.

Henfrey, A., on the so-called eye-spot

of the Infusoria and inicroscopic

Alge, 332; on the elaters of

Trichia, 461.

Hierochloé borealis, new habitat for,

314.

Hofmeister, Dr. W., on the fertiliza-

tion of Ferns, 272; on the fecunda-

tion of the Coniferz, 429.

Hogg’s, J., Microscope, its History,

Construction and Applications, re-

viewed, 204.

INDEX.

Hooker, Dr. J. D., on the structure

and affinities of Trigonocarpon, 209;

on the structure and functions of

the rostellum in Listera ovata, 444;

on the affinities of the Balanopho-

race and Nymphieacee, 456.

Hoploparia, new species of, 116.

Huxley, T. H., on the common plan

of animal forms, 72; on the ana-

tomy of the Brachiopoda, 285 ; on

the anatomy and development of

Echinococcus vetermorum, 379.

Hydra fusca, on the habits of, 367.

Hypocephalus, on the position of, in

the system, 464.

Hyperoodon bidens, on the occurrence

of, 347.

Hyrax, new species of, 158.

Idalia, new species of, 103.

Infusoria, on the so-called eye-spot

of the, 232; contributions to the

natural history of the, 321.

Intestinal worms, on the embryogeny

and propagation of, 156.

Kakapo, on the habits of the, 302.

Kangaroo, on a new species of, 465.

Kraussia, new species of, 149.

Kiichenmeister, Dr., on the Coenurus

cerebralis of the Sheep, 315.

Lamellibranchiata, on the branchial

currents in the, 177.

Lawson, G., on the occurrence of

“Cinchonaceous glands” im Ga-

liaceze, and on the relations of that

order to Cinchonacee, 161; on

Stellaria umbrosa, 457.

Layard, E. L., on the ornithology of

Ceylon, 57, 105, 264.

Leptopoma, on the geographical dis-

tribution of, 416.

Limnadia, new species of, 229.

Linaria, on anew British species of, 408.

Linnean Society, proceedings of the,

231, 309, 457.

Linyphia, notes on some species of, 31.

Listera ovata, on the structure and

functions of the rostellum in, 444.

Lithornis Emuinus, on some remains

of, 263.

Lubbock, J., on some Arctic species

of Calanidee, 125.

Lyall, Dr. D., on the habits of Stri-

gops habroptilus, 302.

Lycium, remarks on the genus, | ; new

species of, 7, 131, 187, 336.

M‘Coy, Prof. F., on some new creta-

ceous Crustacea, 116.

INDEX.

Mantell’s, the late G. A., Medals of

Creation, reviewed, 201.

Medusze, on the habits of, 462.

Megalostoma, note on the genus, 416.

Meissner, Dr. G., on the genus Mer-

mis, 421].

Mermis, on the genus, 421.

Meteorological observations, 79, 159,

239, 319, 399, 466.

Microscopic test-objects, on the strue-

ture of certain, 441.

Miers, J., on the genus Lycium, 1,

131, 182, 336; on the correctness

of the position assigned to Oxycla-

dus in the family of Bignoniacee,

310.

Minnows, voracity of, 367.

Mites, on diseases in plants caused

by, 456.

Mollusea, on the structure of the

organs of breathing in the, 34; new

genera of, 69, 76, 418; on the oc-

eurrence of rare Irish, 397 ; typical

collections of, 397.

Monkeys of the Amazon, on the, 451.

Moore, D., on the imtroduction of

Anacharis Alsimastrum, 309.

Morrisia, new species of, 149.

Myrina, characters of the new genus,

Neilo, characters of the new genus, 69 ;

new species of, 70.

Neriéne, notes on some species of, 32.

Notopocorystes, new species of, 118.

Nudibranchiata, new species of British,

102.

Object-glasses, on the relation of the

angular aperture of, to their pene-

trating power and to oblique light,

PACS

Orbicula, new species of, 151.

Ornithology of Ceylon, notes on the,

57, 105, 264.

Ounces, note on the, 394.

Owen, Prof., on the anatomy of the

tree kangaroo, 448.

Oxycladus, on the position of, in the

system, 310.

Paxillus, new species of, 70.

Peach, C. W., on the habits of

Medusze and some small fishes,

462.

Peliostomum, new species of, 3.

Pentarthrum, characters of the new

genus, 129.

Petrogale, new species of, 465.

Physa fontinalis, on the habits of, 366.

471

Pipra, new species of, 158.

Plants, on the structure of the coal

epoch of, 229; on associations of

colour and relations of colour and

form in, 401 ; new localities for rare

British, 315, 455; on diseases in,

caused by mites, 456.

Pleurosigma, on the structure of the

valves of some species of, 441.

Polytoma Uvella, on the reproduction

obfeois

Pterocyclos, on the geographical dis-

tribution of, 416.

Ptilotis, new species of, 302.

Reproduction, analogy between the

processes of, in the plant and im the

hydroid zoophyte, 313.

Respiration, on the mechanism of

aquatic, in invertebrate animals, 34,

241.

Reussia, characters of the new genus,

120.

Rhamnus, on the supposed antheridia

of, 141.

Rissoa, new species of, 123.

Royal Institution of Great Britain,

proceedings of the, 72.

Royal Society, proceedings of the, 67,

205, 285, 441.

Salticus, notes on some species of, 28.

Sanderson, Dr. J. S. B., on the sup-

posed antheridia of Rhamnus, 141.

Sarcophaga, on the occurrence of

larvee of, in the human eye and

nose, 238.

Schneider, A., on the natural history

of the Infusoria, 321.

Sclater, P. L., on two new species of

South American birds, 158.

Seal, note on the African, 394.

Sea-water for the aquarium, method

of manufacturing, 65, 419.

Sedgwick, Prof., rejomder to Prof.

Milne-Edwards, and Mr. Bower-

bank, 195.

Seeman, B., on the natural order

Crescentiacex, 233.

Sericimus, on the species of the genus,

305.

Shells, on the arrangement of the

families of bivalve, 21.

Sowerby’s, J. E., Ferns of Great

Britain, reviewed, 284.

Spiders, notes on British, 28.

Spiderwort, on the formation of the

stomata in the epidermis of the

leaves of the, 75.

472

Spongilla, on zoosperms in, 334.

Stellaria umbrosa, note on, 457.

Stewart, N., on the various sections

of coal, considered in their relation

to the block, 153.

Streptocephalus, new species of,

220

Strigops habroptilus, on the habits of,

302.

Suthora, new species of, 397.

Terebratella, new species of, 146.

Terebratula, new species of, 146; on

a peculiar arrangement of the san-

guiferous system in, 205.

Terebratulina, new species of, 148.

Thecacera, new species of, 103.

Thecacera pennigera, on the capture

of, 237.

Theridion, notes on some species of,

Thomisus, notes on some species of,

29.

Thompson, Capt. J. W., on the Gouwa

of Western India, 444.

Thompson, W., on the capture of

Thecacera pennigera, 237 ; on the

occurrence of the bottle-headed

whale, 347.

Thomson, Prof. W., on the analogy

between the processes of reproduc-

tion in the plant and in the hydroid

zoophyte, 313.

Trichia, on the elaters of, 461.

Trigonocarpon, on the structure and

affinities of, 209.

Tritonia, new species of, 104.

Tulasne, M., on the dimorphism of

the Uredinez, 76.

Tyleria, on the new genus, 418.

Tytler, Capt. R. C., on the fauna of

Dacea, 168.

INDEX.

Uredinez, on the dimorphism of the,

76.

Vella, M., on the embryogeny and

propagation of intestinal worms,

156.

Vine, notice of a weevil infesting the,

ole

Viola calaminaria, observations on,

316.

Vogel, Dr. E., on the botanical

features of the region between Tri-

poli and Mourzouk, 457.

Wakefield, R., on some of the habits

of ants, 463.

Wallace, A. R., on some fishes allied

to Gymnotus, 398; on the monkeys

of the Amazon, 451.

Warington, R., on observations made

in small aquaria, in which the ba-_

lance between the animal and vege-

table organisms was permanently

maintained, 366; on artificial sea-

water, 419.

White, A., on the position of Hypo-

cephalus in the system, 464.

Williams, Dr. T., on the mechanism

of aquatic respiration, and on the

structure of the organs of breathing

in invertebrate animals, 34, 241.

Wollaston, T. V., on a new genus and

species of British Curculionide,

129.

Wright, E., on the occurrence of rare

Irish mollusea, 397.

Zine, on the occurrence of, in the ve-

getable organism, 316.

Zoological Society, proceedings of the,

69, 145, 216, 294, 379, 444.

Zoophytes, on the development and

reproduction of, 313.

Zoosperms of Spongilla, on the, 334.

END OF THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.